Essay on Plea Bargaining Assignment - 4461 Words

PLEA BARGAINING Plea Bargaining is the central feature of modern criminal justice system. It is also known as Pre-trial settlement, plea discussions, plea negotiations, resolution discussion etc. In its most traditional and general sense, â€Å"plea bargaining† refers to pre-trial negotiations between the defendant, usually conducted by the counsel and the prosecution, during which the defendant agrees to plead guilty in exchange for certain concessions by the prosecutor. The concept of plea-bargaining is an alternative remedy to the long and tortuous process of trial in courts which has been introduced to ensure speedy disposal of cases and to reduce congestion in prisons. Plea bargaining is a contract with the state wherein the defendant†¦show more content†¦However, many of the courts disapproved of the practice of plea-bargaining because of its infringement on the defendants rights. Till the midst of 20th Century, most of the courts and scholars, all over the World, tended to ignore the importance of plea bargaining, and when discussions of the practice occurred, it usually was critical. A strong criticism against it was that plea bargaining is a lazy form of prosecution that resulted in undue leniency for offenders. However in later part, the significance of plea bargaining has improved to a larger extent and it became integral part of the criminal justice system. Law on plea bargaining has strong variations in Common Law Countries and European Continent. Guilty pleas have been regarded as a sufficient basis for conviction from the earliest days of the common law. In treating a guilty plea as conclusive, common law nations depart from the law of most nations on the European Continent. In serious cases, these nations do not treat any form of confession as an adequate basis for dispensing with the trial, even if trials are likely to be simpler and to focus mostly on sentencing issues when accused do not contest their guilt. A study indicates, the history of plea bargaining has only a recent origin. The criminal justice system long has been rewarded someShow MoreRelatedPlea Bargaining834 Words   |  4 PagesPlea Bargaining University of Phoenix CJA/373 – Criminal Court Systems Mario D’Adamo Week Four - Individual Assignment July 14, 2010 Plea Bargaining Introduction Much of the criticism leveled at the legal system in general and the criminal justice system in particular is well-deserved, but one feature of the criminal justice system poorly understood and thus unfairly judged by both the public and the media, is the process of plea bargaining. Because criminal defendants have no incentiveRead MoreCriminal Justice: The Plea of Nolo Contendere1064 Words   |  4 PagesCriminal Justice The principle reason that a defendant may choose to utilize a plea of nolo contendere as opposed to a not guilty plea is because the former option is not an admission of guilt. The ramifications of this fact are manifold, and can play an important part in future litigation involving the defendant. 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Reading Read Ch. 6 of Criminal Law Today. Reading Read cases involving insanity pleas in Leading U.S. Supreme Court Cases in Criminal Justice. Find reference to these in the Case Index by Topic section. Reading Read the â€Å"New Defenses† section in Ch. 9 of Contemporary Criminal Law. Reading Read this week’s Electronic Reserve Readings

Comparing Nietzsche s The Of The Farmer And The Blond...

To begin, Nietzsche starts with the story of the Farmer and the Blond beasts. It leads with a normal farming town, sufficiently living quietly on its own. At this point, you may enter the Blond beasts. These are the new, stronger, ‘better’ humans. They insert themselves into the lives of the farmers and immediately take control. Being weaker, the farmers have no choice but to bow down and obey. This new regime looks down upon the ‘slaves’ and decide that they themselves must be the good kind of humans- after all, they are more powerful. These slaves are pitiful, weak, and unable to protect themselves, therefore they must aspire to be like the masters, right? While this idea of being better is developing within the masters, the slaves are brooding over their own forming judgments. They reminisce over the life that once was- before the beasts. At this point, all the slaves know is that these powerful beings have ruined their lives and turned them into desolate beings. This feeling is what breeds this heady combination of envy, hatred, and powerlessness. In this position, the only thing the slaves are able to do is to imagine the demise of these masters. The slaves come to the realization that, even though the masters believe them to be the ‘good’ ones, they are in fact the ones perpetuating this oppression, therefore they must be the bad, or evil, ones. Here is where we see the development of Nietzsche’s two types of morality- master morality and slave morality. Master

Musical Performance Free Essays

The history of music predates the written word and is tied to the development of each unique human culture. Music has been used as meditational music since the very dawn of civilization, because it balances the human organism through its rhythmic pattern of tones, which are generated in a harmonic relationship with each other. Mantras originated in the Vedic religion of India, later becoming an essential part of the Hindu tradition and a customary practice within Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. We will write a custom essay sample on Musical Performance or any similar topic only for you Order Now Indian music and mantras bring us back in to the physical world every day.   Most of the indian songs were written by   saints for devotion and meditation. This music was created in order to give people better feelings. Not long ago I visited the concert of a not very famous group â€Å"Atmosphere†. It consisted of two women who chanted mantras and three men who played some instruments. Those instruments included pakhawaj , violin, flute. The most exotic of those instruments were pakhawaj and flute. Pakhawaj   is a long bodied wooden drum with both ends covered in skin. Played horizontally with the fingers and palms of both hands, the right hand surface is tuned to the pitch required and the left hand surface provides the base. Flute, carved from bamboo, is made in every possible size. It is usually played in a vertical position. The combination of the sounds made by those instruments was excellent. The music they played was composed by the members of those group. They took the text of a famous Indian mantras and   composed   a modern joyful music for chanting it. Actually, when they were singing and playing they were meditating themselves. Moreover, a lot of people sitting in the hall were meditating too. While singing the women were dancing. There were no special costumes, except an embroidered Indian shirts. Of course they were influenced by some chanters of mantras, but intheir group they expressed their individualities. To tell the truth, I liked the style of their performance greatly. I think it was a good idea to combine mantras with a modern music. References â€Å"Atmosphere: Music Group†. (2006). Retrieved January 28, 2007, from http://www.answers.com/topic/atmosphere-music-group    How to cite Musical Performance, Essay examples

Natriuretic Peptide in Cardiovascular Biology †MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Natriuretic Peptide in Cardiovascular Biology. Answer: Introduction: The establishment of (NHPA) national health priority area is done in response to the Global strategy of the world health organization (Wells 2007). It is a collaborative activity of territory and state government and common wealth, health experts, non-government organization and consumers and clinicians. Between 1996 and 2012, there were 9 NHPA that are agreed by an advisory council of The Australian Health ministry. Cancer control Cardiovascular health Injury prevention and control Mental health Diabetes mellitus Asthma Arthritis and musculoskeletal conditions Obesity Dementia This report will study the cardiovascular health as the national health priority area. The cardiovascular health the national health priority area as CVD is the major cause of the premature deaths as well as overall mortality in Australia (Wells 2007). The economic burden and cost associated with the cardiovascular diseases are more than any other type of the disease. The cardiovascular health can be improved by the reducing the coronary heart diseases and reducing its impact on the human health. Cardiovascular diseases have a major impact on the Australian population in illness burden term and cost burden on the economy (Wells 2007). All over the world, the people are at higher risk of cardiovascular diseases because of the prevalence of the risk factors such as high blood pressure, cigarette smoking, increased cholesterol level, obesity and little exercise. Priority consideration Data In 1994, there were 54,888 deaths due to cardiovascular diseases or 43.3% deaths in Australia (Carmona 2006). The coronary heart disease was the major cause of these deaths in addition to this, the rate of cerebrovascular diseases such as stroke surplus 10.1% to all deaths. There was also 2.3% deaths due to heart failure and 1.7% by the peripheral vascular disease. (Carmona 2006) According to estimation, in 1991-92, there were 289500 hospital discharges that were followed by the admission for the non-fatal cardiovascular disease episodes (Carmona 2006). From them, 36% cases are of coronary heart disease, 13% are because of stroke and 11% because of the heart failure (Carmona 2006). According to one another estimation, in 1991-1992, 14700 males and near about 4900 females that have age between 25-69 years were suffering from the heart attacks and the non-fatal heart attacks numbers in 1991-1992 was 2800 for females and 8500 are for the females. Roughly 76% is the 1st heart attacks (Trupp 2005). The data collected from the stroke study indicated that each year, in Australia, there was the occurrence of 37000 strokes. In 1989-1990, the rate of the annual event of strokes was 190 males/100000 and 109 females/100000 (Trupp 2005). The cost of the cardiovascular disease for the total health care was about 2.5 billion dollars that included 1.1 billion dollar for in-patient costs, about 0.5 billion dollars for the costs of nursing home, about 0.4 billion dollars for the medical services, about 0.4 billion for the pharmaceuticals and 35 million dollars for the health professional services (Song, Wang and Wu 2015). In Australia, significant health differentials exist in cardiovascular diseases, the death rate is more in male as compared to females from the cardiovascular diseases. This statement is true for the most of the age groups but, these differentials decrease as the age is increased (Song, Wang and Wu 2015). The indigenous people are the population group that has higher death rate due to cardiovascular diseases as compared to the others. Higher socioeconomic people are less vulnerable to the CVD diseases as compared to the lower socioeconomic status people. People those are born in Australia are more prone to CVD than the people those are a resident of Australia but born overseas (Song, Wang and Wu 2015). Improvement of health by reduction of impacted factors To improve the health of the people by overcoming the national health priority area of cardiovascular diseases and deaths that are caused by these diseases, there should be minimization of the causes of the cardiovascular disease death that are coronary heart diseases, smoking, high cholesterol level, diet, high blood pressure, overweight and less physical activity of the adults (Wurie and Cappuccio 2012). In Australia, Coronary heart disease is the main cause of the mortality of the cardiovascular disease. In 1994, about 30000 women and men were died due to the coronary heart disease. However, from the last 1960, the death rate due to the coronary heart disease is declining (Wurie and Cappuccio 2012) . To meet the requirements set a target for 2000, for the coronary heart disease, death rates will require decreasing by 5.8%/annum (Wurie and Cappuccio 2012). The target is seemed to be achieved on the current trends. For the Aboriginal person and Torres Strait Islander person, the leading cause is the coronary heart disease of deaths that is much higher than the death rates of the Australian people. In Australia, approximately, every third man and every fourth woman smoke regularly. Although, in the recent years, there was a decline in the smoking rate among men and women in Australia, the target of reducing smokers about 20% by 2000, is less likely to be achieved (Wurie and Cappuccio 2012). Between the years, 1989-1995, there had been a minor reduction in the adult proportion that does not participate in the physical activity regularly (Myers and Mendis 2014). But the reduction rate should need to be much higher if there is the target of 25% adult with 18 years age and over is to be achieved by 2000 (Myers and Mendis 2014). In Australia, the people get 1/3 of their energy from the fat consumption. In recent years, there is no alteration in this proportion, but there is need to do an alteration to reduce the 32% of energy content from fat (Myers and Mendis 2014). In 1989, 15% of the men and 15.4% women between the ages 20-69 years had the problem of the blood cholesterol level higher than or equal to 6.5 mmol/L. The target is to reduce this level to 12% (Myers and Mendis 2014). In 1994-1995, approximately every second men and every third woman were overweight and there is a continuous increase in the population having the problem of overweight (Adhikari 2012). But there is a target to reduce the overweight population men to 40% and women to 40% that is difficult to achieve (Adhikari 2012). We super-sizing the ambulances The problem of obesity forced the ambulance in Victoria to purchase a modern heavy-duty vehicle because airlines and schools are giving orders for the wider seats. Even our funeral parlors are enlarging their crematoriums (Adhikari 2012). Victoria had expended about 1.4 million dollars on the new ambulances for the overweight patients that have a weight higher than 159 kg. Victoria has also ordered 4 more vehicles of 350000 dollars that are Mercedes based on custom-built those start servicing from the month of April. They will able to transport the patients having weight up to three hundred fifty kilograms (Adhikari 2012). The group manager of the ambulance Victoria said that these heavy duty vehicles are must now a day. For the sake of the patient, hospital, these are necessary as, before three or five years, the ambulance is unable to transport the patients safely. Obviously, the hospital has to keep these patients dignity, most of them, not able to lie down as they feel breathless because of their overweight (Adhikari 2012). Each of the customized ambulances has a 500 kg hydraulic lift, a stretcher that is able to carry up about 450 kg weights, a wheelchair that has the capability of carrying about 295 kg weight (Adhikari 2012). Dr. John Tickell said that there are 80% of the obese people are those can manage their weight but they are not cautioned about the health problems that are related to the overweight (Chum and OCampo 2013). Five years before, the Alfred hospital provided the treatment to the 15 patients only with the overweight problem but now it has catered with the reinforced bed for 50 patients, CT scanners, and toilets, as well as to visit the house-bounding patients, they have a bariatric team. In the year, 1989, 13% men and 6% women had the problem of the high blood pressure. There is a target for the achievement of reduction of this problem 8% in men and 5% in women, but till 2000, there was no progress on this target (Chum and OCampo 2013). Although in Australia and in the whole universe, there is an encouragement for the declination of the death rates due to the coronary heart diseases and cardiovascular diseases, NHPA targets for the recent years is not able to achieve if the recent trends will not be reduced according to the targets (Chum and OCampo 2013). The cardiovascular diseases death rate increases as the person being obese. In recent years, obesity is the major cause of the cardiovascular diseases because it increases the chances of CVD. There is a case study that explained that there is continuously increase in the number of overweight persons. Conclusion From the above discussion of national priority on the cardiovascular health, it is cleared that the CVD is the major cause of the deaths in Australia and they cause major economic burden and cost on the country. There are numerous data that shows its priority as national health priority area. The major cause for the CVD are the coronary heart diseases, smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol level, the lesser physical activity of the adults (Pilgrim, Dorward and Drummer 2016). The prevalence of CVD is more in men as compared to women between 18- 69 ages. So, for the management of the CVD, above factors should be maintained that supports the improvement of the cardiovascular health. References Adhikari, Tara Ballav. 2012. "Adolescent Health; A Must Priority".Health Prospect10 (0). doi:10.3126/hprospect.v10i0.5668. Carmona, Richard H. 2006. "Health Literacy: A National Priority".Journal Of General Internal Medicine21 (8): 803-803. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00569.x. Chum, Antony, and Patricia OCampo. 2013. "Contextual Determinants Of Cardiovascular Diseases: Overcoming The Residential Trap By Accounting For Non-Residential Context And Duration Of Exposure".Health Place24: 73-79. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.07.007. Myers, Laura, and Shanthi Mendis. 2014. "Cardiovascular Disease Research Output In WHO Priority Areas Between 2002 And 2011".Journal Of Epidemiology And Global Health4 (1): 23-28. doi:10.1016/j.jegh.2013.09.007. Pilgrim, Jennifer L., Rhyse Dorward, and Olaf H. Drummer. 2016. "Drug-Caused Deaths In Australian Medical Practitioners And Health-Care Professionals".Addiction112 (3): 486-493. doi:10.1111/add.13619. Song, Wei, Hao Wang, and Qingyu Wu. 2015. "Atrial Natriuretic Peptide In Cardiovascular Biology And Disease (NPPA)".Gene569 (1): 1-6. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2015.06.029. Trupp, Robin. 2005. "It's Time To Make Women's Cardiovascular Health A Priority".The Journal Of Cardiovascular Nursing20 (6): 373. doi:10.1097/00005082-200511000-00002. Wells, John. 2007. "The Public And Professional Interface With Priority Setting In The National Health Service".Health Social Care In The Community4 (5): 255-263. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2524.1996.tb00071.x. Wurie, Haja R., and Francesco P. Cappuccio. 2012. "Cardiovascular Disease In Low- And Middle-Income Countries: An Urgent Priority".Ethnicity Health17 (6): 543-550. doi:10.1080/13557858.2012.778642.

Law of Privity in Malaysia free essay sample

The doctrine of privity prevented a third party from enforcing a benefit in a contract made between other parties. This position has clearly been altered by the enactment of the Contract (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999. Today, third parties are no longer denied the ability to enforce benefits conferred upon them by a contract between two or more parties. 1. Examine the doctrine of privity and the problems that it faced, 2. Discuss the changes brought about by the development of the law 3. Examine the changes and whether they have abolished the doctrine or caused further problems. Compare the current position of the law to that of Malaysia 5. Consider all relevant judicial decisions 6. If necessary, suggest an appropriate remedy for the law in dealing with this matter. 7. Compare the current position of the law to that of Malaysia A basic rule in the law of contract is that only those who are parties to the contract or privy to the contract can sue or be sued on it. We will write a custom essay sample on Law of Privity in Malaysia or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page A person who is not a party to a contract may not enforce a contract even though it was made for his benefit. Similarly, the parties to a contract cannot impose liabilities upon a third party who is a stranger to the original contract. This principle is known as privity of contract. This thesis examines the doctrine of privity in Malaysia and argues that its application to contracts made for the benefit of third parties is inadequate and requires statutory reform. The main obstacle of this doctrine is that it frustrates the contracting parties’ intention to benefit third parties. The difficulty is exacerbated by the growth of contracts made for the benefit of third parties in recent years. It is submitted that contract theory can accommodate third party rights. The development of common law mechanisms to vercome the doctrine of privity in England, Australia and Canada are analysed to consider their application to the position in Malaysia. The common law mechanisms discussed include promisee’s remedies for breach of contract and mechanisms which grant direct rights to the third party to enforce a contract such as trust, agency, tort, Himalaya clauses and others. A comparative study of the use of these mechanisms in the jurisdictions analysed shows that a number of important judicial developments can be undertaken by the Malaysian courts. However, this study also shows that there are limitations with judicial reform of the doctrine of privity and that the more effective solution is through statutory reform. For this purpose, a study on the statutory development of third party rights in England, New Zealand, Australia, together with the position in the United States and the Principles of European Contract Law which are applicable to members of the European Union is also included in this discussion. This comparative study shows that the framework adopted in England now found in Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 is the preferred model for reform subject to a few changes to suit local conditions and circumstances, opinions and outlooks when making decisions. ABSTRACTThis thesis examines the doctrine of privity in Malaysia and argues that its application to contracts made for the benefit of third parties is inadequate and requires statutory reform. The main obstacle of this doctrine is that it frustrates the contracting parties’ intention to benefit third parties. The difficulty is exacerbated by the growth of contracts made for the benefit of third parties in recent years. It is submitted that contract theory can accommodate third party rights. The development of common law mechanisms to overcome the doctrine of privity in England, Australia and Canada are analysed to consider their application to the position in Malaysia. The common law mechanisms discussed include promisee’s remedies for breach of contract and mechanisms which grant direct rights to the third party to enforce a contract such as trust, agency, tort, Himalaya clauses and others. A comparative study of the use of these mechanisms in the jurisdictions analysed shows that a number of important judicial developments can be undertaken by the Malaysian courts. However, this study also shows that there are limitations with judicial reform of the doctrine of privity and that the more effective solution is through statutory reform. For this purpose, a study on the statutory development of third party rights in England, New Zealand, Australia, together with the position in the United States and the Principles of European Contract Law which are applicable to members of the European Union is also included in this discussion. This comparative study shows that the framework adopted in England now found in Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 is the preferred model for reform subject to a few changes to suit local conditions and circumstances. 1. Introduction The privity rule which stipulates that no benefit can be conferred to a third party who is not a party to the contract has long been regarded as an anachronistic shortcoming that has for many years been regarded as a reproach to English private law. The problems created by the privity rule which prevent third parties from enforcing a contract made for their benefit are widespread. 2 Particularly, the privity rule denies the contracting parties from fulfilling their intention to benefit a third party. A number of the Commonwealth countries had undertaken statutory reform of the privity rule and recognised third party rights in contract law. The notable reform was that undertaken by the English Parliament which resulted in the enactment of Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999. Besides, the High Court in Australia and the Supreme Court in Canada had also created exceptions to the privity rule. In Malaysia, the privity rule is deeply entrenched in the legal system. The Malaysian courts had applied the doctrine in a variety of cases involving variety of situations. In the recent case of Razshah Enterprise Sdn Bhd v Arab Malaysian Finance Bhd,4 Abdul Malik Ishak JCA in the Court of Appeal5 stated that: Our Contracts Act 1950 (Act 136) has no express provision pertaining to the doctrine of privity of contract. The director (borrower) failed to pay for the loan and the plaintiff sued the defendant to enforce the guarantee. The defendant sought to counterclaim the plaintiffs action based on two letters7 written by the plaintiff to the director (borrower). The plaintiff attempted to strike out the counterclaim. One of the arguments relied by the plaintiff was that the defendant had no locus standi to bring the counterclaim as it was not a party to the loan agreement. The Court of Appeal rejected the plaintiffs argument because the agreement involved was a guarantee agreement where the defendants liability was dependent on the amount owed by the director (borrower). Thus, the defendant had the locus standi to bring the counterclaim which if successful, would reduce the amount of its liability. No effort has been undertaken to reform the privity rule in Malaysia despite the many difficulties created by the rule. However, the Malaysian Parli

Medieval Music Essays - Medieval Music, Chants, Catholic Music

Medieval Music Essays - Medieval Music, Chants, Catholic Music Medieval Music Music of the Middle Ages made great advancements through the centuries, which many are still evident today. The Christian Church effected the development of music greatly during the middle ages. The first major type of music of this time was chanting. ?The early Christians inherited the Jewish chants of synagogues.?(Bishop-324) Chants didn?t have constant rhythm, every note was about the same length. They had only one melody ,usually in the major key of C. All the singers sang the same notes together, this is called monophonic. Chants became an significant part of the church service, they were sung throughout the mass. These first chants were just sung by the congregation, later on choirs took over. ?Roman Chant became known as Gregorian chant after Pope Gregory I, the great, who may have composed some of the melodies and who actively encouraged an orderly, ritualized use of music by the church.?(MS Encarta-1) He also supported the schola cantorum, a singing school, to teach boys how to chant. During the ninth century many musicians began to use more than unaccompanied melody. A new type of chant was formed called organom. Organum was two octaves of chanting simultaneously. ?Organum was important to the history of music, because it was the first step toward the development of the musical texture known as polyphony (multipart music) the extensive use of which is the most distinctive feature of Western music.? (MS Encarta-1) Around the twelfth century Organum was mostly being developed in France, but the English did have their own version called gymel. If musicians were to chant many pitches at the same time, they needed a more accurate musical notation. Before this, the notation being used wasn?t precise at all. ?Music notation was originally merely a set of small marks, a sort of short hand, written above the words to indicate the rise and fall of the voice and changes in emphasis, without specifying the duration of the notes or the exact pitch.?(Bishop-325) The new way of writing musical notes was black squares and diamonds attached to little poles on a staff of four or five lines, very similar to how we write music today. Music, during the fourteenth century, made great changes in style. ?The new style was called ars nova (Latin, ?new art?) by one of it?s leading composers, the French prelate Philippe de Vitry. The resulting music was more complex than any previously written, reflecting a new spirit in Europe that emphasized human resourcefulness and ingenuity.?(MS Encarta-2) De Vitry also invented the earliest version of the time signature, making it easier to play and write more complicated patterns. Ars nova composers began to repeat the same patterns of either one or more voice parts, usually from Gregorian chant, throughout the piece. Over that they would put other melodies making it polyphonic. ?Nonreligious, or secular, music was composed by wandering poets who sang of chivalry and courtly love in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.?(Comptons-1) Some of these musicians made a living of singing, others did it for the enjoyment. These singers, Troubadours and Goliards, didn?t have a wide range of singing styles. Over 2,000 of these songs have been written and saved in old documents made after the twelfth century though. ?The musician of the early Middle Ages seems usually to have been minstrel either resident in a large establishment or traveling from establishment to another, singing the lays and sagas to his own accompaniment.?(Montagu-19) Musicians were needed to support other types of entertainment as well. Acrobats would perform to music, just like jugglers, and dancing bears. Poor workers didn?t have much to do for entertainment except for music. They would tell stories to music or have people sing while they danced. They probably sang while working together too, like a type of sea chantey. Even though they were enjoyed by many people, musicians were still considered a very low class. Many of the first instruments of the early Middle Ages were taken from the earlier Roman Empire, or from other cultures around the world. One string instrument used a lot was the lyre. ?It is possible that the lyre was carried into northern Europe from Constantinople during the late Roman Empire, for many of the Byzantime armies, especially the Imperial Bodyguard, were recruited from the northern peoples.?(Montagu-13) During the early medieval times it was played by plucking the strings with a plectrum or fingers,. Later in the tenth century bows became more popular and the lyre was also played with one. The

Conference Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Conference Report - Essay Example Clint Eastwood, Fellow Researcher, Atlantic Marine Ecology Research Group, presented an interesting speech on "Implications of Global Warming for Marine Ecology" followed by the Asst. Prof. of Department of Oceanography, Texas University, Mr. Tony Adams' presentation of "Cleaning the Oil Spills in the Atlantic". The Conference concluded with thanks from Mr. Tim McKenney. Evaluations of the Research Presentations were analyzed to determine the constituents of an effective and ineffective presentation, and, to review and refine their presentation techniques. A 'Presentation Assessment Form' was prepared (Table A), to evaluate each speaker, and distributed to the audience prior to the commencement of the conference. Evaluation was done on a scale of 1 - 6, 1 being the 'Poorest' and 6 being the 'Excellent', on two aspects of each of the five competencies viz. 1) Content: Planning and Organization. 2) Topic Selection. 3) Quality of Content. 4) Style of Presentation 5) Use of Visual Aids and Tools. The feedback was collated and analyzed to determine the number of positive and negative comments and common themes related to ineffective or poor presentations. A total of 138 assessment forms for each speaker were analyzed, of which 66% remarked positive feedback and 'A' grade for Mr. Eastwood's for the 'Quality of Content' in presentation, as against 29% posi tive feedback 'A' for Mr. Tony Adams, with 'Style of Presentation', being given the most frequent negative grading 'C'. The assessment scheme was evolved after a careful consideration of some important competencies. Since effective presentation is "to present information in ways that influence peoples' attitudes and behaviour" (Verderber, 1997:6), 'Quality of Content' and 'Style of Presentation', were marked as two prime competencies. The importance of 'Para-linguistics' (Hayton, 2005), the non-verbal communication like eye contact, directing voice to all parts of the room etc, cannot be overemphasized. The audience also participated in the presentation, through "feedback on assessed work" which was "perhaps the most commonly mentioned" (Ramsden, 1992; Biggs, 1999) review tool. Additionally, audience participation has also been envisaged in a 'Question and Answer Session'. It was also meant to develop constructive critiquing techniques, by providing the opportunity to the audience to 'identify and assess the style of speech, evaluate the content, judging the weak and strong points of delivery, and be capable of offering quality feedback to the speaker' (Hooper, 2005). Thus developed, after much deliberation and thought, it was hoped that this scheme will affect "the deep processing results in well-structured learning outcomes" (Biggs, 1979; Marton and Saljo, 1976; Trigwell and Prosser, 1991; Watkins, 1983). An example of a Good Presentation: In this conference, Mr. Clint Eastwood's

Beauty and the Beast Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Beauty and the Beast - Essay Example Although there are many versions, this paper will compare and contrast Villeneuve version with that of Disney because of the characters used, setting and plotting. The versions are different in some aspects and at the same time similar. For instance, similarities and differences arises by focusing on the main characters in the story. In the Disney version, the Beast is selfish and whiny who revenged actions of others, such as the woman who refused sheltering . This is contrary to the Villeneuve version where the Beast is unselfish and the only wrong portrayed is refusing to marry his governess. For this reason, I see that the characters in the two versions are different in that one is punished for wrongdoing while the other falls victim of injustices. Similarly, I feel the two versions are different in the way they portray the main character, Belle. In the Disney version, she is the only child of the inventor and lives in France. People love her, and they always bust into songs in her praise. She was the beautiful girl in the village, but unaware of her beauty, making her develop an interest in books and adventuring rather than a housewife.Far rell (315) also supports this observation Contrarily, the Villeneuve versions portray Belle as the youngest daughter of the merchant who lives a luxurious life in the city.Okapina (10) also shares the same sentiments. From all these, one character has different meanings hence confusing the reader as portrayed in the two versions. Secondly, I feel the two versions are different on their expositions. For instance, Disney version names Belle’s father as Maurice and he successfully managed the wood chopping invention making him move to different towns with the hope of winning a prize in fair. However, he got lost on his way back in the woods before coming across the Beast’s castle. In Villeneuve version, the father was referred as the merchant who lost all his wealth because of fire and others taken to pay

Assignment Essay and Discussion Forum in Sociology Week 5

Assignment and Discussion Forum in Sociology Week 5 - Essay Example ed status and achieved status and very often the ascribed status of an individual is â€Å"conferred at birth or received involuntarily later in life, based on attributes over which the individuals have little or no control, such as race, ethnicity, age and gender† (Kendall, p. 105). However, it is possible for an individual to acquire achieved statuses in one’s life with hard work, personal competence, personal choice and successful competition. There is a close link between ascribed statuses and achieved ones; therefore, it should also be kept in mind that factors such as race, ethnicity and gender are most likely to diminish one’s opportunity to reach higher realms of achieved statuses. It can therefore be concluded that people who are privileged by their positive ascribed status are more likely to develop positive achieved status whereas those who are disadvantaged by ascribed status tend to acquire negative achieved status (Kendall, p. 105). For a person who occupies different statuses, it is his master status that dominates over all others and determines his social position. According to Hughes (1945), a person’s master status â€Å"is the most important status a person occupies; it dominates all of the individual’s other statuses and is the overriding ingredient in determining a person’s general social position† (Kendall, p. 105). Factors such as a person’s race, ethnicity and religious identity can very often constitute the master statuses for individuals. In any society or community where racial discrimination, ethnic bias and religious prejudices prevails, the dominant group members tend to â€Å"single out members of other groups as â€Å"inferior† on the basis of real or alleged physical, cultural or nationality characteristics† (Kendall, p. 106). The social identities of ethnic minorities are most likely to be perceived based on their ethnicity or race. Factors su ch as a person’s race, ethnicity and religious identity constitute as the

Absurdism And Existentialism In Their Novels English Literature Essay

Absurdism And Existentialism In Their Novels English Literature Essay The theme of absurdism used by Franz Kafka and Albert Camus does full justice to bring out the pathos in both The Outsider and The Metamorphosis by Albert Camus and Franz Kafka. They establish the unsettling existence of the both the protagonists. The present situation of the narrators brings to life incidents that justify their unpleasant situations and what they are going through in their respective lives. Where existentialism questions mans existence in a particular social system; absurdist investigates characters that are placed in society that is devoid of God and how syllogism and parody loom large over the entire situation. Hence The Outsider and Metamorphoses have existentialism and absurdism as the philosophical tools that take these stories ahead. In The Outsider, for instance, Mersault does not regret the death of his mother but instead goes to watch a comedy film and indulges in a love affair with his girlfriend while In The Metamorphosis Gregor wakes up to find himself transformed into a vermin and his life changes from that point on. The effect of the absurdism soon takes over the lives of both the characters unwittingly and they are faced with questions about their own existence which makes both the novels existentialist in their themes. Existentialist philosophy in a way proves the importance of human individuality and liberty. Camus concretizes an absurdly dramatic story of a man who has no emotions in him evidently in the opening lines Mother died today. Or maybe yesterday, I dont know. I had a telegram from the home: Mother passed away. Funeral tomorrow. Yours sincerely. That doesnt mean anything. It may have been yesterday. He- does not even feel obliged to justify his reason behind such odd and discourteous avoiding of any emotional involvement. Speaking briefly with the director of the home, Mersault tells him that he did not feel any guilt at having sent his mother away. He even declines an invitation to view the body, but keeps vigil with it overnight, in accordance with the custom. When asked by the undertaker how old his mother was, he replies Fairly, for in truth he doesnt know her exact age. His going for a swim with a woman of his acquaintance at an inopportune time proves once again futility of his life. As an embodiment of absurdism, Mersault doesnt see any need to fulfill or dispel the discomfort from the minds of the people as his nature was very offending to other people. He seemed completely inhuman, and never believed it was important to live up to the expectations of others and follow etiquette. According to me, every human being goes through the kind of unpleasant and embarrassing situations Mersault and Gregor face but it principally depends on how a writer decides to detail and sketch these characters. There is a funeral procession, in the heat of the day, across the parched, sun-drenched landscape, and once again, Mersault is disturbed by the light, the sun, and the heat, and feels unable to concentrate. This uncanny effect to the point of blinding ones vision evinces unjustifiable discomfort Mersault exudes towards the society. The Outsider is set in Algiers, where our protagonist Mersault, who was a bachelor, is leading a life that questions his existence. He does not show any interest in his job and does not believe in socializing with other people around him. As the story goes ahead, the reader gets to see the quirkiness of Mersault towards the world with conflicting emotions that make him commit a deadly crime. This marked nature of Mersault is brought out in the narrative in many incidents in the book; one of them being in chapter four where he is not at all concerned about Raymond torturing his wife. He responds matter of factlyAt about 3 in the morning there was a knock on my door and Raymond came in. I didnt get up. I sat at the edge of my bed. He didnt say anything for a minute and I asked him how it had gone. He told me that he had done what he wanted to do but shed slapped him and so hed beaten her up. Id seen the rest. I told him I thought that this time shed really been punished and he ought to be pleased. Mersaults brusque attitude towards other people around him reckons him as an outcast. I feel that the writers philosophical stance is unique, as he puts immense emphasis on the belief of absurdism and we need to understand what absurdism is ? Absurdist fiction is the manifestation of certain beliefs that dominated the works of a number of playwrights during the middle of the 19th century. This form of fiction implies that in a world that is devoid of God, the existence of human being shall have no strong foundation, it would be meaningless. The absurd elements in such plays and fiction were the fact that man has been thrust into a world where he cannot survive on his own instincts but is maneuvered by a force invisible to him. He is caught up in paradoxical situations and finds no reprieve by communicating or logical action. His actions and dialogues turn out to be a mockery of his own existence. The best part about the narrative is that it does not preach with a message but at the same time does tend to ask us some important questions about humans and their social existence. The narrative is kept simple but is compelling nevertheless. Therefore, the work is a reflection of Camuss moral axiom. Like Camus, Kafka too was existentialist and adapted to an absurdist way in carrying the narrative of his stories ahead as traces of his style are evident in his letter to Max Brod. In Franz Kafkas The Metamorphosis, the absurdist and existentialist elements form the main parts of Kafkas narrative. The story begins with the line When Gregor Samsa awoke from troubled dreams one morning; he found that he had been transformed in his bed into an enormous bug. After realizing that his life would never be the same again Gregor starts realizing certain truths about his existence which had not come to his realization before. He starts to reflect on his own being. Till the day before he had been a hardworking salesman who looked after his family but now he cannot continue the same life anymore. Now after Gregors transformation his parents and sister realize that they shall now have to look after Gregor and start making a living of their own. This leads Gregor into a state of depression which he can only observe but cannot do anything about it. His family is robbed of happiness and normalcy and though they are trying their best to cope with it, their disparity is clearly evident in these lines of the second chapter- Now his sister working with her mother had to do the cooking too; of course that did not cause her much trouble since they hardly ate anything. Gregor was always hearing one of them pleading in vain with one of the others to eat and getting no answer except thanks, Ive had enough or something similar. They all knew the unpleasantness they had to confront but none of them had an answer to it. I think that both the stories are existentialist and absurd in their narratives, and they both create a long lasting impact on readers and create a serious sense of debate about human existence and the acceptance of social rules. The Outsider is a well juxtaposed prose of absurdism and existentialism. Mersault is a social outcast and his further actions only make him an object of ridicule in his own society. One cannot see any kind of redemption for Mersault in his predicament; he is doomed and destined for a fatal end. The parts of the story where Mersault is wallowing in self doubt are existentialist in theme and the parts where he is unsuccessfully trying to find out the answers that can legitimize his actions are absurdist. Kafkas Metamorphoses sees Gregor going through an amalgamation of emotional, physical and mental dilemmas. His physical transformation into a vermin is the main culprit. This transformation creates an emotional and mental mayhem in him. It can be said about Gr egor that he has the answers but is in search of the questions. So, the Metamorphoses begins in an existentialist way but ends with an absurdist plot.

Essay --

Comparative policing study is a study that is trying to find new and successful ways to police other countries by feeding off of each other’s ideas and ways of policing. The main goal is to find a global way of policing with little to no flaws, a way that makes policing easier and more efficient for everybody. Reichel, Bayley, and Mawby all have different ideas on comparative policing study and each of their ideas can give you an insight on what are the benefits and risks of the comparative policing study. In Comparative Criminal Justice Systems: A Topical Approach, Reichel states that the benefits of comparative policing are both provincial and universal. The provincial benefit is avoiding ethnocentrism by looking at other ways of working and checking if they might apply to our own systems. And the universal benefit encourages international cooperation and gives practitioners an understanding of how to work in a ‘flat’ world. (Reichel, 2008) An example of a provincial benefit is how many countries have adopted the Japanese police practice of having small local police stations. Cit...

Difficult Task Force Essay

Josà © has been appointed chair of a steering task force to design the primary product line for a new joint venture between companies from Japan, the United States, and South America. The new joint venture company will make, sell, and service pet caskets (coffins) for the burial of beloved pets, mostly dogs and cats. One month earlier, each company had assigned personnel to the task force: From the Japanese company, Furuay Masahiko from Yokohama, assistant to the president of the Japanese company; Hamada Isao from Tokyo, director of marketing from its technology group; and Noto Takeshi from Tokyo, assistant director of its financial management department. From the United States company, Thomas Boone from Chicago, the top purchasing manager from its lumber and forest lands group; Richard Maret from Buffalo, the codirector of the company’s information systems group; and Billy Bob â€Å"Tex† Johnson from Arizona, the former CEO, now retired and a consultant for the compan y. From the South American company, Mariana Preus from Argentina, the head of product design for that company’s specialty animal products group; Hector Bonilla from their Mexico City division, an expert in automated systems design for wood products; and Mauricio Gomes, in charge of design and construction for the plant, which will be located in southern Chile to take advantage of the vast forest there. These members were chosen for their expertise in various areas and were taking valuable time away from their normal assignments to participate in the joint venture. As chair of the task force, Josà © had scheduled an initial meeting for 10:00 A.M. Josà © started the meeting by reviewing the history of the development of the joint venture and how the three company presidents had decided to create it. Then, Josà © reviewed the market for the new high-end, designer pet coffins, stressing that this task force was to develop the initial design parameters for the new product to meet increasing demand around the world. He then opened the meeting for comments and suggestions. Mariana Preus spoke first: â€Å"In my opinion, the current designs that we have  in production in our Argentina plant are just fine. They are topnotch designs, using the latest technology for processing. They use the best woods available and they should sell great. I don’t see why we have to design a whole new product line.† Noto Takeshi agreed and urged the committee to recommend that the current designs were good enough and should be immediately incorporated into the plans for the new manufacturing plant. Josà © interrupted the discussion: â€Å"Look, the council of presidents put this joint venture together to completely revolutionize the product and its manufacture based on solid evidence and industry data. We are to redesign the product and its manufacturing systems. That is our job, so let’s get started.† Josà © knew that the presidents had considered using existing designs but had rejected the idea because the designs were too old and not easil y manufacturable at costs low enough to make a significant impact on the market. He told the group this and reminded them that the purpose of the committee was to design a new product. The members then began discussing possible new design elements, but the discussion always returned to the benefits of using the existing designs. Finally, Tex spoke up: â€Å"I think we ought to do what Mariana suggested earlier. It makes no sense to me to design new caskets when the existing designs are good enough to do the job.† The others nodded their heads in agreement. Josà © again reminded them of the task force’s purpose and said such a recommendation would not be well received by the council of presidents. Nevertheless, the group insisted that Josà © write a memo to the council of presidents with the recommendation to use existing designs and to begin immediately to design the plant and the manufacturing system. The meeting adjourned and the members headed to the golf course at 10:45 A.M. Josà © returned to his computer and started to write the memo, but he knew it would anger the presidents. He hoped he would not be held responsible for the actions of the task force, even though he was its chair. He wondered what had gone wrong and what he could have done to prevent it. Case Questions Which characteristics of group behavior discussed in the chapter can you identify in this case? How did the diverse nature of the group affect the committee’s actions? If you were in Jose’s position, what would you have done differently? What would you do now?

How Managing with a Global Mindset

How managing with a global mindset adequately addresses some challenges raised by managing in a globalising world. ABSTRACT The globalising world has impacted and raised new challenges for organisations and leaders. Thinking about new perspectives and reframe old paradigms are required and fundamental to leaders succeed in the global competitive environment. This essay will explore how managing with a global mindset are becoming an important competence across boundaries and how it can open doors for thriving businesses worldwide. Table of contents 1.Challenges of managing in a globalising world †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 2. Competencies of global leaders †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 3. Global versus Local †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 6 4. Global mobility †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 9 6. Bibliography †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 10 2 Managing with a global mindset 1. Challenges of managing in a globalising world The globalisation process promoted significant changes in the businesses environment.In this context, global organisations have been the target of constant and intense transformations, which affect and require redefinitions of the leadership style adopted. These companies need global leaders, who are able to face the demands of a competitive and internationalised market (Adler, Brody and Osland 2001). Many multinational companies are facing a common challenge: the development of leaders able to manage global companies and take advantage of strategic opportunities. But do the global leaders require a set of capacities totally different from those required for national companies?What would be the main difficulties faced by global leaders when they extend their activities outside the domestic market? How does global companies can act in order to promote a global mindset among their leaders and employees? Some key traits of a leader, which can be carried out independently of the position or hierarchical level, has been considered as essential such as integrity, self-confidence, drive, desire to lead, communication, selfconfidence, and the potential to stimulate and capacitate its collaborators in the search for creative solutions and innovative alternatives, besides knowing the business (Kirkpatrick and Locke, 1991).On the other hand, global leadership, in addition to the above-mentioned characteristics, presents differentiated traits like the capacity to appreciate and deal with different cultures, as it is in direct or indirect contact with subsidiaries in other countries and even with main offices located in the same country, but with cultural differences. Additionally, inquisitiveness, self-awareness, capacity to embrace duality among others has been considered as core characteristics to lead global companies (Gregersen, Morrison and Black, 1998).The increased diversity that leaders in global roles need to confront and the challenges of operating over long distances and multiple time zones, often remotely, were seen to have particular significance for the leadership approaches and behaviours required. Higher risks, complexity and uncertainty due to constant changes in 3 Managing with a global mindset political and economic conditions are considered additional challenges that global organisations and leaders must deal with in developing th eir strategy.They need to maximise the benefits and opportunities of operating globally, manage the increased scale and scope that international operations require, build alliances across boundaries and understand international disciplines such as regulations, finance and human resources management that differ from those who operates only nationally. Furthermore, understand the business as a whole in a global context; the competition and market trends are essential for making well-informed business decisions and to stay ahead of the competitors.Managing in a globalising world also requires being innovative and having the courage to challenge the status quo (Gregersen, Morrison and Black, 1998). 2. Competencies of Global Leaders According results of a research carried out among global company leaders, successful leaders had a remarkable global mentality and they see and think about the world in a different way from those who let themselves be discouraged and disheartened in the face of global enterprise challenge. And what would be the essential trait that defines that remarkable mentality?According to Black (2006), it is curiosity and inquisitiveness. â€Å"They seek to try the local food and not international food at some five star hotels. They read the local newspaper, talk to the local residents. † Although this trend in search of new experiences may be an innate trait, and not something that is learnt, nothing prevents the companies from looking for this characteristic at the time of selecting its potential leaders and sending them to an international assignment. Although individual personality traits mould leadership capacities, the company’s culture has an equally vital role.Black (2006) describes what John Pepper, one of the leaders of Procter & Gamble who helped to make the company a global company in the 80s and 90s, did when he arrived in a country where he had never been before: he visited five local families and learned with them how the families washed their clothes, cleaned the house and dealt with the children’s hygiene in that culture. Pepper believed that the experience and real contact with local cultures makes the difference in becoming a global leader. 4 Managing with a global mindsetAccording to Manning (2003), most of the companies admit that technical competencies and organizational experience alone are insufficient criteria for the choice of a global leader. Pursuant to the studies developed by Black and Gregersen (1999), the crucial characteristic for leadership is linked to relationship skills and opening of new perspectives. The process of developing global leaders becomes a challenge, because the understanding of this movement experienced by them collides with personality traits that differentiate them from the rest.And such characteristics directly affect the work relationships and the effectiveness of the cross cultural leadership, the elements of which should be taken into consideration by the organisations for the selection and development of global leadership programs. It is indispensable for the leaders to know that in a scenario of connection and exchange of knowledge and of new management practices, functional and geographic mobility requires a global leader capable of enduring the pressures, constant uncertainties and resisting to the disruption of pre-set standards in order to adapt himself to a new reality.The global leader must have strategic worldwide vision in order to promote changes and capture the market opportunities. Additionally, they need to be adaptable, have capacity for managing uncertainty, ability to balance tensions and to understand people and fundamentally have open-mindedness, which is key for them succeed (Gregersen, Morrison and Black 1998). As Jeff Bezos, founder and CEO of Amazon. com, affirmed: â€Å"We cannot let short term investors and specialists frighten us and prevent us from experimenting†.One of the most redeeming fea tures of the culture of Amazon according to its CEO is the fact that it values experimentation. Bezos believes that it is an important attitude to learn and to innovate as a global company (Business Harvard Review, 2007). Experimentation is also a fundamental competence for global leaders that should explore new ideas, products and markets without fear, even when the return is not immediate. In the past, companies entrusted innovation to a few geniuses at the main office and simply appropriated it.Today, in a globalising world multinationals value and reap the fruits of the inventiveness of their employees wherever they are. 5 Managing with a global mindset 3. Global versus Local Global leadership â€Å"is not about doing business abroad. It's about managing an integrated enterprise across borders where you encounter different cultural, legal, regulatory and economic systems,† says Stephen Kobrin (2007), a Wharton professor of Multinational Management. â€Å"It's about opera ting in multiple environments trying to achieve a common objective. â€Å"No matter what the challenges may be many observers draw the attention to the fact that managing a global company is something very different from managing a domestic company. A German company that operates solely in Germany can be managed in a certain way. However, those in charge of an international company, depending on where it operates, have to review several of their assumptions regarding many things, from the development of the marketing strategies, regulatory framework to the human resources policies. Despite globalisation, â€Å"the world is not flat†.There are many variations in basic things that require adaptations, when leaders ignore them there is a high risk of compromising the company’s performance (Kobrin, 2007). A very good strategy for the company in Germany, based on an absolute understanding of the German market, may not work in Japan. Organisations and global leaders deal wi th the challenge of determining when a global and when a local solution is the most effective way to deliver to market. They need to determine where standards, products and processes need to adhere to worldwide frameworks and where local standards are more appropriate.Kobrin (2007) formulates the question of global leadership and interprets it as a clash with a basic paradigm: the exchange between integration and fragmentation. According his experience it is important to ask: Do the company react in a different way according to the market? Or do they operate the same way no matter where? The way each one reacts to individual markets depends on the common elements to those markets, he adds. In regard to technology, for example, the environment is less important. People use computer chips in the 6 Managing with a global mindset ame way, independently from which culture they belong or the language they speak. Therefore, the problem faced by the global leader is related to the pressure of the balance to be attained when the company has to answer to different markets in a different way, benefiting from the efficiencies of scale. Sometimes tension arouse between the managers from the country of origin and the local professionals. Lack of flexibility in dealing with local demands partly explains why some companies face a series of crisis in their global expansion.The global leaders need to be able to find a balance between the extremes. Believe that the countries are so different that any type of local intervention is impossible, and leave the management totally in the hands of local professionals is not a global strategy. It is crucial to find a balance and understand that there are differences to be respected, but might there are similarities and possible learning on both sides of the border. Empower local subsidiaries and local teams and at same time implement strategies that are globally effective is a huge challenge for global companies and leaders. . Global Mob ility Samsung Electronics, of South Korea, often mentioned as one of the most successful emerging companies, is an example of how a company can transfer world-class resources overseas. The company initially amassed solid experience in the development of products and operations globally. Being one of the most efficient electronics companies in the world used its capacities in large-scale manufacturing and its experience in innovation to launch the brand in new markets like USA and Europe.Next, Samsung invested heavily in research and development and in the global production, increasing even more its participation within the world marketplace. To make this possible, Samsung recruits people from different nationalities from different universities in the world. The company institutionalised its training and development, when it created an internal training centre and implementing a systematic approach to performance management. Moreover, Samsung encourage 7 Managing with a global mindse t transfer of capacities that requires executives who know how to apply tandard practices in diverse countries, contexts and cultures. This integration of markets, resources and talents – an essential element for global growth – does not yet occur in most of the companies, even among those who already do business around the world (McKinsey, 2007). Like Samsung, Shell re-allocates high potential managers placing them in various different positions in distinct sectors of the company, including overseas. To work in various positions overseas during several years is an indispensable part of Shell’s culture, states Mathilde de Boer, consultant of Leadership Development of Shell Learning.Though the employees are sometimes reluctant towards this policy of constant relocation — â€Å"when it comes to couples with each one having their own career, the challenge is even greater†, notes de Boer —, since willingness to travel and live overseas is a fund amental requirement for someone who wants to progress his career. â€Å"When someone decides to move into a higher position, he or she will have to face a job that implies moving to different locations†. The benefits of overseas experience are visible at the time the executives meet for more formal leadership training.As they have experience in many different situations, they quickly pick up new ways of doing things (McKinsey, 2007). According to McCall and Hollenbeck (2002), although global executives should be flexible people, sensitive to cultural differences, capable of dealing with complexities and willing to think globally, they need to develop or improve these competencies through travelling overseas, uniting with international teams, adhering to training programs focused on globalisation and or transfers to other subsidiaries. Training can contribute to global leader’s development and with the process of opening to the new.Aiming to extend the boundaries and re frame the actual mental map. Thus, training should confront the participants with the contrasts found in the world that engage most of their senses for a significant period of time (Black, Gregersen, 1999). Meanwhile, the process of global leaders’ training does not consider only their capacities and qualifications, but also the experiences lived and the lessons learn from their practical day-to-day. 8 Managing with a global mindset Diversify and amplify the leader’s cultural backgrounds may be essential for large multinational organisations that aim to keep or develop their competitive advantage.Manoeuvring across the global environment, spanning diverse countries, cultures and customers’ preferences and expectations, presents significant challenges but also opportunities. For this reason promote global mindset among the leaders through international assignments or rotations through different functions it is important to develop the leaders’ ability to d eal with uncertainty and change, gain a greater understanding of the organisation, develop networks and facilitate the transfer of knowledge across the company and beyond the borders. 5. ConclusionIt is not adequate to define a company as global based on the amount of offices it has overseas. The real measurement to define a company as global is the way in which it perceives the world. It is not only a question of the number of employees working around the world. What is important is the extent of their connection and collaboration with people in other countries. In reviewing the literature it becomes clear that there is a greater understanding about the importance of the strategic role that an effective global leadership plays in facilitating organisations’ ability to compete effectively in a very competitive globalising market.As a consequence many organisations are making particular efforts to tailor development programs to address leaders’ needs, such as encouragin g knowledge sharing and mobilising individuals and teams who have experience and expertise around the world to participate on projects where skills and best practice are transferred. Promoting multicultural training and how to manage international and virtual teams and rotating people through different functions.These methods have been applied to develop leaders’ ability to deal with ambiguity, uncertainty and change. Moreover, develop a global mindset and gain a greater understanding of the organisation to facilitate the transfer of knowledge. 9 Managing with a global mindset As companies are increasingly spreading around the world, it becomes very difficult to build an organisational culture of equally shared knowledge. Organisations need to take a proactive and integrated approach in developing global leaders.They need to be clear about the capabilities required of their global leaders, ensure that development initiatives are appropriate for their needs through regular eva luation and review, and support effective leadership practices and behaviours through all their human resources processes. On the other hand, leaders also need to focus on building their global mindset through an understanding of their own needs and focusing on self-development efforts. They need constantly practice the watching and listening attitude to able to manage potential dilemmas that arise from cultural differences.And make efforts to do not stereotype, recognising and valuing the benefits that differences bring through an open-minded approach. Seeking to bring diverging opinions together and make efforts to promote news ways of doing things. 10 Managing with a global mindset 6. Bibliography Adler, NJ, Brody, LW and Osland, JS 2001, Going Beyond Twentieth Century Leadership: A CEO Develops his Company’s Global Competitiveness Cross Cultural Management, Vol 8. Black, JS, Morrison, AJ and Gregersen, HB 1999, Global Explorers: The next Generation of Leaders, Routledge, New York, NY.Black, JS 2006, The mindset of global leaders: Inquisitiveness and duality. Advances in global leadership, Stamford, CT: JAI Press. Black, JS and Gregersen, HB 1999, The right way to manage expats. Harvard Business Review. Business Harvard Review, 2007, The institutional yes. An interview with Jeff Bezos, viewed on 10/11/11 . Gregersen, HB, Morrison, AJ and Black, JS 1998, Developing leaders for the global frontier, Sloan Management Review. Kirkpatrick, S and Locke, E 1991, Leadership: do Traits Matter, Academy of Management Executive.Kobrin, SJ 2007, What Makes a Global Leader? , The Wharton School, viewed 09/11/11, . Manning, T 2003, Leadership Across Cultures: Attachment Style Influences. Journal of Leadership an Organizational Studies, Winter. McCall, MW, and Hollenbeck, GP 2002, Developing global executives: The lessons of international experience. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. McKinsey 2007, Developing Global Leaders in Latin America, McKinsey Quarterly, viewed 09/11/11, . 11 Managing with a global mindset

Top 11 Writing Apps for iOS (iPhone and iPad)

Top 11 Writing Apps for iOS (iPhone and iPad) Top 11 Writing Apps for iOS (iPhone and iPad) Top 11 Writing Apps for iOS (iPhone and iPad) By Daniel Scocco Finding the best writing apps for iOS can be challenging. Arguably the best word processor in existence, Microsoft Word, was designed with Windows in mind. Still, developers have answered the call and diehard Apple fans can still find several high-quality writing apps to help them write down their ideas. Whether you need a full-scale word processor or a simple notetaking app, there are several great options for iOS users. 1. Byword If you are writing on mobile or tablet, Byword is one of the best markdown editors out there. It isn’t flashy, it won’t cure cancer, but it will help you write down words. By default, it supports TXT, TEXT, MD, MMD, MARKDOWN, MARKDN, MDOWN, MKDN, MARKD, and Fountain file formats. Another added bonus of Byword is that you can export your finished products as PDFs and HTML documents. 2. Editorial Editorial comes with a little more functionality than Byword. What makes Editorial a great app is the fact that it has features like a built-in multi-tab web browser, Dropbox integration, and more. It also comes with inline preview for taskpaper, markdown, and foundation documents. 3. 1Writer 1Writer is one of the best notetaking apps for iOS. It can easily be downloaded from the App Store for either iPhone or iPad. The app can be used to write down ideas, for research, or to revise past ideas. 4. iA Writer Pro If you are looking for a great, free word processor, iA Writer Pro is the right app for you. This app provides you with all the tools and features you expect from a word processor without the price. By default, it is compatible with both the iPad and iPhone. 5. Pages Pages is Apple’s response to Microsoft Word. Like any app developed by a major company, Pages works as you would expect to. It is also completely compatible with iOS because it was designed specifically for it. Pages is great because it comes with every feature you will need as a writer. If you require a more professional-grade word processor, Pages is exactly what you need. 6. Ulysses What more could you expect from a program that was named after one of the greatest novels ever written? This word processor is compatible with most devices that run on iOS. Ulysses is considered to be one of the best writing apps on the App Store and is used by many professional writers who work on iOS. Why is Ulysses so good? It boasts a simple, yet effective design, is easy to use, has workflow options, a slew of export options, and syncs across the various iOS devices. 7. Werdsmith Werdsmith is another great option for aspiring writers who use iOS. This free app is compatible with both the iPhone and iPad. What makes Werdsmith great is the fact that it is loaded with features, has a great UI, Dropbox integration, and it can even be used on the iPod touch. 8. Bear Bear is another example of a barebones, markdown notetaking app. It won’t blow you away with features, but it does what it does well. This notetaking app is best used for taking notes and writing prose. You can also input your notes into Bear, making it a great app to use to study while you are transiting to and from school. Bear is very easy to use and a great option if you want a free notetaking app. 9. Microsoft Word for iOS Alright, you may be thinking, why are you suggesting Microsoft Word for iOS? One simple reason, because it exists. If you are comfortable with Microsoft Word and all of its features, why change? Microsoft has created an iOS version of their flagship word processor and it works flawlessly. A lot of iOS users make use of Pages because they think it is the go-to word processor for iOS. But, if Microsoft Word is available, why not use arguably the best word processor on the market? 10. Grammarly Sometimes Grammar is hard. Even the best writers will tell you this. Grammarly isn’t an official writing app like the other ones previously listed. Grammarly is a free grammar-checking app that is available on iOS. The free version will help you make basic corrections and improve your grammar, while the paid version comes with even more features. With Grammarly, you will never struggle with spelling, syntax, and sentence structure. 11. Dictionary.com App No one has perfect spelling. We all misspell words and rely on that wavy red line to tell us when we make mistakes. The official Dicitonary.com app is a great choice for writers who want to bolster their vocabulary, check the meanings of new words, and help find synonyms for words that they use too much. What makes this app even better is that it is free and it comes in a lite version. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Freelance Writing category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:When to Use â€Å"That,† â€Å"Which,† and â€Å"Who†Yay, Hooray, Woos)

BVC Company Law Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

BVC Company Law Assignment - Essay Example Tyler from the directorship of the company was valid or otherwise. 3. Winding up proceedings, based on a statutory demand in proper form, have been commenced against the company. The petition has already been advertised and the company’s bank accounts have been frozen. The company wrote to the creditor, when underlying debt was first demanded, stating that the agreement was that the creditor’s invoices were payable after 60 days. I have been informed that the petition was given to a junior employee, who did not understand what it was, and it was not until very recently that Mr Henderson heard of it and immediately contacted the instructing solicitors. They also contend that since the bank accounts are frozen, it is not possible for them to pay off the petitioning creditor. Summary of Advice 4. As a director, Mr. Tyler owed a duty to take reasonable care and caution when dealing with the company’s assets. By misusing the credit cards of the company, he had breache d his duty. The removal of Mr. Tyler can be justified on the basis of his mismanagement of the company’s funds and his general conduct during the period of his directorship. The only problem in this regard is Article 11 of the Articles of Association of the company, where it requires the passing of a special resolution for the removal or appointment of a director. Under CA 2006, a director can be removed by simple majority but with special notice. The brief is silent about the special notice. Thus, a special notice and a chance of hearing to defend against the removal is mandatory before taking the decision of removal Mr. Tyler. Thus, his removal without these prerequisites can be invalidated. In my opinion, although the current directors have a prospect of getting a court decision in their favour, if a claim is brought under unfair prejudice Mr. Tyler can stake a personal claim or derivative claim or a claim for the just and equitable winding up of the company. In my opinion , the best option available to the company and its directors is to offer to buy Mr. Tyler’s shares at a fair rate. 5. With respect to the winding-up petition, Mr Henderson would like to dispute the petition on the basis of his letter to the creditor, when they first demanded the payment explaining that under the company’s standard terms and conditions it has 60 days time lag after receipt of invoices. The petition can be disputed, as the company has a policy to pay its debts within 60 days of receiving the invoice, which can be discerned from the company’s previous transactions. The company can apply for an injunction or an application for the rejection of the insolvency proceedings, but there are chances that the court may issue an order against the company, which will result in additional costs being incurred by them. In my opinion, the best option available to the company is to make an application to the court for the assurance of a validation order so that t he company can pay its outstanding debts. As the company’s accounts are held at one branch and the bank has frozen the bank account, the company can ask for a validation order to allow it to use its accounts to pay off the debts. Removal of Mr Tyler from the Directorship 6. Mr. Tyler was removed from his capacity as a director of the company during the last year, when the other directors decided that Mr.

Literature Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Literature review Example 80). For example, a 24/7 customer support service is available to customers in case of online businesses which is not there usually in case of traditional businesses. If we talk about online clothing sale business, we can say that it is a wonderful approach towards such business as it provides benefits for both customers and the company in terms of increased convenience for customers and increased customer base for the company. E-retailing actually started in 1997 by Dell computers. Today, there are a large number of companies that are doing their businesses online, such as, The Outnet, E-bay, and Amazon. The Outnet is one of the most successful UK clothing e-retailers. The company operates its business online and offers a wide range of luxury clothing products, such as, bags, shoes, clothes, and other garments to the customers. To ensure efficient working of business processes, the company has implemented an efficient management information system that keeps the business information up-to-date. The information system makes use of information technology tools for the processing of information and generation of reports (Earl 1996). As Oz (2009, p.9) states, â€Å"Information is the lifeblood of any organization†. ... Almost every company having online presence needs to manage the details of business processes and other information in the database in order to carry out the business processes effectively. According to Stahl (2008, p. 1), management information systems promote efficiency and effective control of business processes. The Outnet would have been a failure without the implementation of information system because it is a customer-oriented company and needs to be efficient in managing the information about customers’ orders and payments. Therefore, information management is one of the basic needs of an online retailer company in order to succeed in today’s competitive environment. If we talk about the benefits of online shopping for customers, we can say that customers find it very easy and convenient to do online shopping as it saves them a lot of time, energy, and money in terms of reduced traveling costs. Similarly, in today’s busy world, customers do not have much time to go to stores physically and spend a lot of time to select and purchase clothes. They prefer to do online shopping because they can do it from anywhere and any time. They do not have to dedicate some part of their time for shopping; rather they can do it while doing other personal or professional life activities. For example, people can do online shopping within the break they usually get in office hours. Similarly, a woman can check out latest clothing fashions on the websites of online companies while doing household activities. Moreover, they can also easily search many other alternatives to choose the best bag, a pair of shoes, or any other clothing product. A

Developing Countries Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Developing Countries - Research Paper Example However, India is able to develop rapidly than Pakistan because of India’s ability to maintain a healthy secular democratic administration. On the other hand, Pakistan is struggling to develop properly because of the over influence of religion on politics. This paper compares the political, economic and educational developments in India and Pakistan in order to learn more about the factors which affects the developments in developing countries. Developing Countries The classification of countries under the label of developing, developed or underdeveloped is often raises controversies. It is not necessary that these classifications are always correct. The controversies often arise when deciding whether a country is developed or developing. America, Canada, Japan, Europe etc are generally accepted as the developed regions or countries even though recent recession destroyed the financial backbone of these countries or regions. At the same time the emerging economies or the most r apidly developing economies like India, China, Brazil etc are only developing countries even now. A country with low level of material wealth is often considered as a developing country. ... Even if enough resources are available, it is not necessary that a country may develop rapidly. The development of a country depends on how well the country is able to utilize its internal resources and the external opportunities. The growth and development of developing countries are heavily dependent on the nature of politics and growth of education and economy. Culture or ethnicity plays an important role in the development of politics, economy and education in developing countries. India and Pakistan are two neighboring Asian countries and both of them have similar internal resources and external opportunities for developments. However, India is currently developing much rapidly than Pakistan even though India is the second in the list of population size. India is a true secular democratic country whereas democracy and secularism in Pakistan remain on paper alone. In fact military controls the politics and administration in Pakistan. Democracy in Pakistan was not developed proper ly because of the influence of Muslim religion in all the aspects of administration in Pakistan. â€Å"77% of the Pak population is Sunni Muslims whereas 20% is Shia Muslims. Christians and Hindus constitute the remaining 3 %† (Religious Intolerance in Pakistan, n. d). Shias and Sunnis often engage in violent clashes even though both of them belong to the same Muslim community. â€Å"Random acts of violence have occurred in Pakistan for many years between Shiite and Sunni Muslims. These often take the form of unprovoked attacks on peaceful Muslims at prayer† (Religious Intolerance in Pakistan, n. d). Religious fundamentalism made the Pak soil fertile for the growth of terrorism. It should be noted that Bin Laden was staying in Pakistan for the last few years

Early Reading Essay Example for Free

Early Reading Essay Fostering a sense of articulation Foucus on how young children learn to read and write? What is effective practice? Artcials reflect reasearch on how children learn to read and write.. grounded in what is know about child development We know that roal language is the foundation for literacy develpomen tand that oral lang continues to supposrt lit dev. thourghout the early yrs and beyound. Lang development are interdependen, what we do to supposrt oral lang contributes lit and vice versa. virtual fields trips to bulid up a vocab and build up a background knowledge. family story bk reading at home helps.. reading allowed. The key predictors of long term lit learning.. start children off to a good start and ensure continue success Julie Bowtell Proessional Leas: Primary Eng, School of edu, uni of herefordshire teachers tv ITE lectures Early reading teaching lit. reading and writing are mutually beneficial, one impacts positively on the other. Primary currciulaum is predicated on childrens ability to read, write, speak and listen. What is reading? Reading is much more than the decoding of black marks upon the page: it is a quest for meaning to be an active participant. English for Ages 5 to 16 (The cox report) 16. 2 (1989). Reading is an active process of getting meaning from print. Reading is always a message getting activity 2 aspects Decoding.. word recog, high frequency words comprehension of whats being read As fluent skilled reading we are reading for sense, menaing.. searching for the menaing that the autor intended. Simple view of reading: language comprehension and word recognition Rose review came up with the model and the wording the simple view of reading BIB Gough, P. B. (1972). One second of reading. In J. F. Kavanagh I. G. Mattingly (eds. ), Language by ear and by the eye (pp. 331-358). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Intergenerational Observation Scale Analysis

Intergenerational Observation Scale Analysis Abstract Innovative intergenerational programs continue to grow in number and scope. The development of standardized evaluation instruments, however, lags behind, leaving many researchers and practitioners without tools to effectively assess their programs. Evaluation data often focus on outcomes without attention to the nature of the interactions between generations. Understanding the process of intergenerational contact is central to understanding its outcomes. We developed the Intergenerational Observation Scale to assess the social interactions and affect of young and old participants during intergenerational activities. Our 3-step observer training process demonstrated good scale reliability. We present the process of developing the scale, achieving observer reliability, and next steps to continue exploring the scales utility across intergenerational populations and settings. Development of a standardized tool for intergenerational programming: The Intergenerational Observation Scale Providing opportunities for meaningful engagement to persons with dementia challenges family and professional caregivers alike. While some practitioners and researchers seek innovative means to support client well-being (e.g., Allen-Burge, Burgio, Bourgeois, Sims, Nunnikhoven, 2001; Orsulic-Jeras, Judge, Camp, 2000), many dementia care programs are characterized by extreme levels of inactivity (Ice, 2002), which may result from infantilization (Salari Rich, 2001) and can lead to agitation and depression and detract from well-being (Teri et al., 2003; Voelkl, 1986). Kitwood and Bredin (1992) emphasized caregivers responsibility for supporting the personhood of individuals with diminished capacity to do so for themselves. Personhood, or the dignity and respect owed to each individual, encompasses an individuals experiences, preferences and values. For many people, their social history involves significant time spent interacting with and caring for children. Recently, care profession als have turned to intergenerational programming (IGP) as one therapeutic method to support personhood and well-being of persons with dementia (e.g., Camp et al., 1997; Jarrott Bruno, 2001). Though contact between young and old generations remains an integral part of most families (Eggebeen Davey, 1998), non-familial IGP remains a relatively new treatment milieu in elder care. IGP as a whole varies widely, depending on the populations involved, program objectives, and available resources. Interventions targeting children at risk for drug use (Taylor, LoSciuto, Fox, Hilbert, Sonkowsky, 1999), older adults needing employment (Larkin Newman, 2001), and foster care families needing community support (Eheart Hopping, 2001) have utilized intergenerational strategies to achieve program goals. Programs have employed IGP to promote positive affect and engagement of older adults (Xaverius Matthews, 2003), improved attitudes about aging among children (Middlecamp Gross, 2002), and greater sense of community among staff (Jarrott, Morris, Kemp, Stremmel, 2004). Despite the significant cognitive impairment of many elder care clients, practitioners have found elders experiences interacting with and caring for children so ingrained that they remain able to interact appropriately and positively with children until late in the progress of a dementing illness (Camp et al., 1997). The means of assessing IGP vary as much as the programs themselves. Researchers have utilized interviews (Jarrott Bruno, 2007), observational scales (Marx, Pannell, Papura-Gill, Cohen-Mansfield, 2004; Xaverius Matthews, 2003), attitudinal surveys (Jantz, Seefeldt, Galper, Serlock, 1977; Kocarnik Ponzetti, 1986), drawings (Lichtenstein, et al., 2001), and cognitive assessments (Newman, Karip, Faux, 1995) to evaluate the impact of IGP on one or more groups of participants. While the range of scales utilized is not inherently problematic, the current state of intergenerational research tools requires significant improvement for several reasons. First, scales are often created for a single study without any report of psychometric properties (Kuehne, 2004). Consequently, researchers reinvent the wheel rather than use valid, reliable scales. Second, most scales assess the experiences of a single generation (e.g., Camp et al., 1997; Underwood Dorfman, 2006) although IGP should, by de finition (Newman Smith, 1999), provide mutual benefit for young and old participants. Third, the developmental and disease characteristics of a large portion of IGP participants, pre-school age children and frail elders (e.g., Epstein Boisvert, 2006; Middlecamp Gross, 2002; Salari, 2002), limit the opportunity for valid self-report measures. Consequently, researchers often rely on proxy report and direct observation to tap participants experiences with IGP. A critical limitation of much IGP research lies in the black box that conceals the process of bringing young and old together. That is, assessments targeting the impact of IGP often neglect what actually transpired during the IGP. Useful process data will vary from project to project; it might detail the level of activity, the type of interpersonal interactions, the physical environment, facilitators behaviors, or the activitys age appropriateness. For example, Xaverius and Matthews (2003) assessed the impact of IGP involving fourth graders and senior center participants who met for six intergenerational activities. The authors described the theme and setting of activities where elderly participants engagement was coded. Data were not gathered regarding the nature of the activities or what happened when participants were engaged in the intergenerational activity (i.e., if they engaged with the activity materials, with an age peer, or with an intergenerational partner). In contrast, Taylor and colleagues (1999) reported on a senior mentoring program targeting attitudes towards aging, drug use, and civic engagement of participating at-risk youth. The treatment group as a whole demonstrated improved attitudes towards school, civic engagement, aging, and resisting drug use compared to a control group. The authors also tapped into important process data by rating seniors intensity of involvement as a mentor. The researchers found a greater degree of attitudinal improvement among children whose senior mentors were more intensely involved with their student partners. Such studies exemplify the importance of capturing process as well as outcome data. The variety of populations and settings that avail themselves of IGP supports the study of multiple paths leading to positive outcomes. Most would agree that a one-size-fits-all model of IGP is impossible and inappropriate; however, identification of practices and processes that optimize outcomes improves the overall quality of IGP and enhances understanding of how IGP uniquely meets individuals needs across the lifecourse. In turn, greater understanding of the processes by which positive IGP outcomes are achieved informs development of theory pertaining to intergenerational relationships. For example, while the contact theory (Allport, 1954) provides necessary conditions for achieving positive intergroup contact, Allport did not describe the processes by which these outcomes would be achieved (Pettigrew, 1998). The limitations of IGP and related research stem from the relative infancy of IGP research. Researchers have been studying IGP for only the last 30 years (e.g., Jantz, et al., 1977), yet they are trying to raise the field to match those of child and adult development. Practitioners are anxious to know how IGP affects the physical, cognitive, and mental health of participants, yet the more basic question about whether and how children and elders interact with each other during proscribed IGP remains largely unanswered. Before we can reliably draw conclusions about the effects of IGP on children and elderly participants, we must determine the nature of their time spent together. Kuehnes (2003) state of our art report on intergenerational research implored researchers to tap the experiences of young and old participants and to develop and disseminate standardized measures relevant to IGP. By addressing these points, researchers can better inform practitioners efforts and build a cohesiv e body of research. The scale described in the current paper addresses each of these recommendations. We sought to address the challenge of measuring the experiences of young and old IGP participants, focusing on frail elders and pre-school age children because they constitute a large portion of participants involved in IGP (Goyer Zuses, 1998). We conducted a three-phase study to develop an observational scale tapping the social behavior and affect of both young and old IGP participants. We turned to the child development literature, with its long history of observational research, for inspiration. Partens (1933) categories of childrens play behaviors appealed to us; they encompassed categories reflecting a continuum of social behaviors ranging from non-engagement to cooperative engagement. Rubin (2001) developed the Play Observation Scale, drawing on Partens work and childrens cognitive development research. The broad social behaviors of unoccupied, watching, solitary, parallel, and cooperative captured by the Play Observation Scale reflect behaviors of interest to practitioners working to support meaningful engagement among elders and children. For example, a code for unoccupied behavior is salient given the high rates of inactivity found at elder care programs (Ice, 2002) and the goal of utilizing intergenerational strategies to promote positive social engagement. Furthermore, our experiences with IGP (e.g., Gigliotti, Morris, Smock, Jarrott, Graham, 2005; Jarrott Bruno, 2003; Jarrott Bruno, 2007; Jarrott, Gigliotti, Smock, 2006; Jarrott, Gladwell, Gigliotti, Papero 200 4; Jarrott et al., 2004; Weintraub Killian, 2007) highlighted interaction as the central mechanism for achieving mutual benefit during IGP. Thus, a code for solitary behavior is relevant as it reflects engagement in a presented activity without social interaction. The first author used the original Play Observation Scale to observe elders during structured IGP (Gladwell Jarrott, 2003), determining that older adults engagement was greater during IGP than non-IGP. However, Gladwell and Jarrott found the scale cumbersome as they gathered salient data as well as information of little contemporary significance to IGP. Furthermore, they violated some of the scales specifications by utilizing the Play Observation Scale in a structured activity setting. We made several adaptations to Rubins Play Observation Scale for use with structured IGP (see Table 1 for descriptions of the scale categories).   First, Rubins social behavior categories included sub-categories indicative of cognitive development; however, given our emphasis on interactions irrespective of developmental abilities, we eliminated cognitive behaviors from our scale. Second, the Play Observation Scale was designed to be used during free play sessions where children self-initiate behaviors. However, intergenerational researchers have repeatedly emphasized the need for structure to optimize IGP (e.g., Camp et al., 1997; Jarrott, 2006; Xaverius Matthews, 2003), and so we developed the scale with planned IGP in mind. Finally, we expanded the IOS to distinguish between social behaviors with age peers and intergenerational partners (i.e., interactive peer versus interactive intergenerational). The first phase of the study involved qualitative observations of IGP conducted at a shared site intergenerational program serving frail elders and pre-school age children. The observations were then used to modify Rubins Play Observation Scale for use in a structured intergenerational setting. Phase two involved piloting the scale with two observers coding video of IGP and working with the second author to reach consensus and create a master coding scheme for the video sessions. In phase three, the scale was further modified and tested with a larger group of four observers coding video and live IGP. The current paper describes the three phases of the development and initial validation of the Intergenerational Observation Scale (IOS). While the IOS captures both behavior and affect of targeted child and elderly participants, the current paper focuses on social behaviors, which comprise the more complex sub-scale of the instrument. Method Participants Virginia Techs Neighbors Growing Together, is a shared site intergenerational program designed to improve the lives of people across the lifespan through intergenerational collaboration involving teaching, research, and outreach. Neighbors Growing Together includes two co-located programs: Adult Day Services and the Child Development Center for Learning and Research. Adult Day Services provides activities, care, and supervision daily to approximately 15 adults (50+ years old) with cognitive and/or physical impairments. The Child Development Center provides year-round, full-day care for 41 children ages 15 months to 5 years. Through daily programming designed to nurture development, enhance competencies, and facilitate positive social interactions between the generations, Neighbors Growing Together provides high quality services to children, older adults, and their families. Children from each of three classrooms have one to two weekly opportunities to join their elderly â€Å"neighb ors† for IGP, which typically involves three children and three older adults in a variety of activities, such as gardening, art, or sensory projects. Children and adults work together in a group facilitated by staff and students from the Child Development Center and Adult Day Services. Staff partners plan and implement activities that support an overarching goal of positive interactions. Activities further target developmental goals for both generations, such as fine motor skills or cooperation. Children and adults meet in a shared space adjoining the two programs. Child- and adult-sized chairs designed to put all participants at eye level and developmentally appropriate books and art materials are provided. Procedures Phase 1: Scale development In fall 2005, four research students gathered qualitative observations of IGP involving Adult Day Services participants and Child Development Center children. Observers attended different intergenerational sessions. Each week, observers had a distinct focus, starting with holistic observation to orient the observers to the setting and proceeding to target the environment, the participants, and the facilitators. Following their weekly observations, the observers and the first and second authors discussed the observational data, focusing on the interactions between participating children and elders and factors that influenced those interactions. After observing 3-5 intergenerational sessions apiece, observers read and reviewed the IOS scale and codebook developed by Gladwell and Jarrott (2003) and closely mirroring the Play Observation Scale developed by Rubin (2001). They discussed how well the categories applied to the intergenerational context they observed and how to modify the sca le to reflect the social behaviors critical to intergenerational interactions in planned activities. Through an iterative process, the first two authors used observers notes and conversations to modify the Play Observation Scale to capture data reflecting the interactive process of IGP. Based on the observations from Phase 1, we further developed and refined the IOS (see Table 1). The scale builds on earlier observational research (Rubin, 2001) by coding participants behavior and affect and the affect of intergenerational partners with whom a target participant interacts.   The IOS was developed for live coding. It captures observations for the duration of an intergenerational activity, which tends to last 15-30 minutes. Each observer identifies 4-5 participants for observation and watches them for 1-2 minutes to become familiar with the participants behaviors before beginning to record data. He or she codes a participant for one 15-second interval, then codes the next participant for 15 seconds, followed by the third participant, etc. After the last participant is coded, the observer cycles back to begin observing participant one again. All observers in a session start coding when the facilitators begin the activity and end when the activity completes. When coding, if a behavior occurs for the majority of the coding interval, it is coded as the predominant behavior. When multiple behaviors are observed for equal intervals during a 15-second coding episode, we use the following hierarchy to code the predominant behavior most indicative of intergenerational interactions: Interactive Intergenerational, Parallel Intergenerational, Interactive Peer, Parallel Peer, Staff, Watching, Solitary, and Unoccupied. Phase 2: Establishment of reliability Video coding of the observations was introduced during Phase 2 of scale development because learning the IOS through the use of video has several advantages. When first learning the scale, observers watched a 15-second interval repeatedly to better understand the IOS behavioral scoring. The video coding procedure allowed observers to review their coding with the second author, who is experienced in observational coding. Weekly meetings were held during which observers coding was reviewed and discussed until observers reached a consensus on what behaviors constituted the IOS categories. Weekly review helped observers achieve acceptable reliability in assigning predominant codes to participants social behaviors. The video procedure enabled us to refine the IOS manual. The video coding process began with two observers who both had experience with live coding during IGP. After studying the manual, observers filmed three weekly sessions of planned IGP between the elders and each of the three classrooms of children (one session per classroom per week). The procedure for using video to establish acceptable reliability was completed in three steps. First, observers independently coded sessions in 15-second intervals and re-watched these as many times as necessary to determine the predominant social behavior. In the second step, observers more closely approximated live coding by watching the 15-second intervals on video only once to code the predominant social behavior.   In the third step, observers coded live sessions (scoring participant behaviors individually but observing the same participants at the same intervals) and filmed the activities, which allowed observers to review their coding at the weekly meetings and resolve discrepancies. Based on the consensus between the two coders and the expert coder, master coding sheets were developed indicating agreement on the predominant behavior for each 15-second interval of the coded sessions. Before observers could proceed to the next step in the training process, they had to achieve acceptable inter-rater reliability measured by Cohens kappa. A kappa score of .60 or higher was considered acceptable (Cohen, 1960). The kappa scores for the two observers in Phase 2 were .67 for the first step, .85 for the second step, and .81 for the live coding in the third step. Replication of reliability In Phase 3, we used the IOS video coding procedure to train four new observers. In addition to establishing that the video coding procedure would work with observers new to the IOS, we wanted to determine the amount of training necessary to achieve acceptable reliability with our 3-step process. The observers started with an introductory period where they read the manual and watched live IGP to observe the range of behaviors common to IGP. Observers attended weekly meetings where they watched IGP videos and received instruction on using the IOS. The introductory period lasted approximately 3 weeks or until observers felt comfortable with the coding, which was an additional 2 weeks for one of the observers. After the introductory period, the observers started on step 1 in the video coding procedure. Each step lasted approximately 4 weeks. At the weekly coding meetings, observers reviewed any discrepancies between their coding and the master codes determined in Phase 2. Once the observers achieved acceptable reliability in step 1, they moved on to step 2. Coding pairs were formed, and they coded live IGP during step 3, achieving acceptable kappas of .92, .69, and .75. Discussion In the current paper, we discuss the development of the IOS, a scale designed to measure young and old participants social interaction and affect during IGP.   In developing the IOS, we began with qualitative observations of IGP to refine a well-established child development observational scale (Rubin, 2001). We modified the scale for observations of elder and child participants in a typical range of intergenerational programs.   Based on two groups of observers, we present a system for training individuals to use the scale and establish inter-rater reliability.   Currently, the use of standardized measure within the field of IGP research is extremely limited, and our goal is to develop a scale to address this need. The IOS addresses several of Kuehnes (2003) recommendations for advancing   intergenerational research and evaluation.   First, the IOS is grounded in theory that shaped our view of positive IGP outcomes. Personhood theory (Kitwood Bredin, 1992) leads us to intergenerational relationships as a once common source of positive social interaction for many elders that can continue to support their well-being in late life. Contact theory (Allport, 1954; Pettigrew Tropp, 2000) elucidates necessary conditions for positive intergroup exchange, such as that between youth and elders. The conditions of cooperation and shared goals inform our expectation that the central mechanism of effective IGP is positive intergenerational interactions. The IOS captures the level of interactive behaviors between generations, thus reflecting the presence or absence of cooperation and shared goals of participants. Second, we draw from standardized measures of social interaction, namely the work of Parten (1933) and Rubin (2001).   Working from their concepts, we qualitatively looked at the behaviors seen during IGP.   We then refined the social behaviors described within Rubins scale to fit an intergenerational population and to capture levels of social engagement or interaction during IGP.   Third, we steer away from the over-reliance on attitudinal measures, moving instead to behavioral and affective outcomes of IGP. Fourth, by taking steps to develop a standardized scale, we contribute to the research tools available to IGP researchers, which increases the capacity to compare outcomes across studies, thus advancing the collective understanding of IGP. Our results establish the IOS as a replicable measure of social interactions during IGP.   The three-step process we used to achieve acceptable inter-rater reliability proved effective with two groups of observers. The process allows observers to develop a thorough understanding of the social behaviors in the IOS. Observers coding is checked against the master coding scheme to insure observers accuracy coding observed behaviors.   The master coding scheme allows for faster, more accurate training on the use of the IOS. Now that we have developed a successful process for training observers to use the IOS and achieve acceptable inter-rater, observers could be trained relatively quickly, most likely within four to eight weeks. A reliable, quick training method will allow data collection to begin at an earlier date and will allow more researchers to use the scale with confidence. An important strength of the IOS is its utility with both generations of IGP participants. Most research on individual outcomes of IGP participation focuses on one generation or the other (e.g., Middlecamp Gross 2002), neglecting the experiences of the other generation. When researchers do evaluate both age groups, they typically use non-parallel measures because parallel scales for disparate age groups rarely exist.   Not only will the IOS allow for standardized data collection across sites; it enables standardized data collection across generations. We expect the IOS to yield valuable process and outcome data for practitioners and researchers. Considering first the IOS as a source of outcome data, a program introducing or modifying an IGP could, for example, use IOS data to determine the affect and social behavior of participants during IGP with a goal of achieving high levels of positive affect, increasing intergenerational interaction, and reducing inactivity. In regards to process data, the IOS can be used in conjunction with salient outcome measures (e.g., depression or attitudes towards aging) to help interpret the effects of IGP (another recommendation by Kuehne, 2003). In asserting that IGP positively affects (or does not affect) targeted outcomes, researchers analyses would be strengthened by including data on the level of intergenerational interaction and affect that transpired among participants. For example, Seefeldt (1987) reported that children who participated in regular intergenerational visits to a nursing home h ad worse attitudes about aging than children who did not.   These findings would have been more easily interpreted if they incorporated process data such as the affect and level of interaction between children and elders.   Because these data were not included in the analyses, readers are left to speculate whether all IGP involving nursing home residents would negatively affect childrens attitudes or if the nature of the IGP in that study contributed to the negative outcomes. Seefeldt described IGP that yielded little support for intergenerational interaction (i.e., children performing in the center of the room, surrounded by the elders). She also indicated that elders were largely non-responsive to the children, suggesting that the negative outcomes may have been due to the nature of the IGP. While IGP professionals advocate standards of IGP practice (Epstein Boisvert, 2006; Rosebrook Larkin, 2003), significant variability on dimensions of IGP likely affects targeted outcomes and should be assessed. By capturing data that reflect the process of connecting generations, the IOS promotes understanding of why IGP succeeds or fails. As outlined above, the IOS provides many benefits for IGP research and evaluation. Our next step in establishing the scales value and utility to the intergenerational field entails establishing the reliability for coding occurrence of behaviors and predominance and occurrence of affect. Second, we plan to use a variety of means to establish validity, including video training to address substantive validity, expert panels to assess content validity, and statistical modeling of IOS data and related measures to determine convergent or divergent validity. Third, the scale was developed within the Neighbors Growing Together shared site intergenerational program, which involves structured programming between preschoolers and frail older adults. Generalizability is a critical indicator of validity and depends on the scales utility across intergenerational sites, populations, and programmatic approaches. Fourth, the behavior category codes are developmentally salient for pre-school age child ren and frail elders; we need to determine if the categories will be equally informative when applied to older children and well elders. Finally, the scale should be tested across cultures to support Kuehnes (2003) recommendation to take a more global view of IGP innovation. Initial indicators reveal that the IOS could become a useful tool to researchers and practitioners alike. As they seek to develop, improve, and sustain IGP while linking programming data to instrumental outcomes of interest to practitioners and funders, the availability of a standardized scale appropriate for use with young and old will prove invaluable. At a time characterized by tremendous creative energy and innovation in the intergenerational field, the IOS can capture the essence of IGP as practitioners support meaningful outcomes through intergenerational relationships. References Allen-Burge, R., Burgio, L. D., Bourgeois, M. S., Sims, R., Nunnikhoven, J. (2001). Increasing communication among nursing home residents.   Journal of Clinical Geropsychology, 7, 213-230. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Camp, C. J., Judge, K. S., Bye, C. A., Fox, K. M., Bowden, J., Bell, M., et al.. (1997). An intergenerational program for persons with dementia using Montessori methods. The Gerontologist, 37, 688-692. Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, 37-46. Eggebeen, D. J., Davey, A. (1998). Do safety nets work? The role of anticipated help in times of need. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 939-950.   Eheart, B. K., Hopping, D. (2001). Generations of hope. Children and Youth Services Review, 23, 675-682 Epstein, A. S., Boisvert, C. (2006). Lets do something together: Identifying effective components of intergenerational programs. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, 4(3), 87-109. Gigliotti, C. M., Morris, M., Smock, S., Jarrott, S. E., Graham, B. (2005). Supporting community through an intergenerational summer program involving persons with dementia and pre-school children. Educational Gerontology, 31, 425-441. Gladwell, M. S., Jarrott, S. E. (2003, November). An observational assessment of elders with dementia during intergenerational activities. Poster presented at the meetings of the Gerontological Society of America, San Diego, CA. Goyer, A., Zuses, R. (1998). Intergenerational Shared Site Project, A Study of Co-located Programs and Services for Children, Youth, and Older Adults: Final Report. Washington, DC: AARP. Ice, G. H. (2002). Daily life in a nursing home: Has it changed in 25 years?   Journal of Aging Studies, 16, 345-359. Jantz, R. K., Seefeldt, C., Galper, A., Serlock, K. (1977). Childrens attitudes toward the elderly. Social Education, 41, 518-523. Jarrott, S. E. (2006). Tried and true: A guide to successful intergenerational activities at shared site programs. Washington, DC: Generations United. [Electronic version available at www.gu.org] Jarrott, S. E., Bruno, K. A. (2003). Intergenerational Activities Involving Persons with Dementia: An Observational Assessment. American Journal of Alzheimers and Related Diseases, 18, 31-38. Jarrott, S. E., Bruno, K. (2007). Shared site intergenerational programs: A case study. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 26, 239-257. Jarrott, S. E. Gigliotti, C. M., Smock, S. A.,   (2006). Where do we stand? Testing the foundation of a shared site intergenerational program. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, 4. Jarrott, S. E., Gladwell, M. S., Gigliotti, C. M., Papero, A. L. (2004). Fostering intergenerational community between child adult care programs: A Results Management approach. Canadian Children, 29(2), 4-13. Intergenerational Observation Scale Analysis Intergenerational Observation Scale Analysis Abstract Innovative intergenerational programs continue to grow in number and scope. The development of standardized evaluation instruments, however, lags behind, leaving many researchers and practitioners without tools to effectively assess their programs. Evaluation data often focus on outcomes without attention to the nature of the interactions between generations. Understanding the process of intergenerational contact is central to understanding its outcomes. We developed the Intergenerational Observation Scale to assess the social interactions and affect of young and old participants during intergenerational activities. Our 3-step observer training process demonstrated good scale reliability. We present the process of developing the scale, achieving observer reliability, and next steps to continue exploring the scales utility across intergenerational populations and settings. Development of a standardized tool for intergenerational programming: The Intergenerational Observation Scale Providing opportunities for meaningful engagement to persons with dementia challenges family and professional caregivers alike. While some practitioners and researchers seek innovative means to support client well-being (e.g., Allen-Burge, Burgio, Bourgeois, Sims, Nunnikhoven, 2001; Orsulic-Jeras, Judge, Camp, 2000), many dementia care programs are characterized by extreme levels of inactivity (Ice, 2002), which may result from infantilization (Salari Rich, 2001) and can lead to agitation and depression and detract from well-being (Teri et al., 2003; Voelkl, 1986). Kitwood and Bredin (1992) emphasized caregivers responsibility for supporting the personhood of individuals with diminished capacity to do so for themselves. Personhood, or the dignity and respect owed to each individual, encompasses an individuals experiences, preferences and values. For many people, their social history involves significant time spent interacting with and caring for children. Recently, care profession als have turned to intergenerational programming (IGP) as one therapeutic method to support personhood and well-being of persons with dementia (e.g., Camp et al., 1997; Jarrott Bruno, 2001). Though contact between young and old generations remains an integral part of most families (Eggebeen Davey, 1998), non-familial IGP remains a relatively new treatment milieu in elder care. IGP as a whole varies widely, depending on the populations involved, program objectives, and available resources. Interventions targeting children at risk for drug use (Taylor, LoSciuto, Fox, Hilbert, Sonkowsky, 1999), older adults needing employment (Larkin Newman, 2001), and foster care families needing community support (Eheart Hopping, 2001) have utilized intergenerational strategies to achieve program goals. Programs have employed IGP to promote positive affect and engagement of older adults (Xaverius Matthews, 2003), improved attitudes about aging among children (Middlecamp Gross, 2002), and greater sense of community among staff (Jarrott, Morris, Kemp, Stremmel, 2004). Despite the significant cognitive impairment of many elder care clients, practitioners have found elders experiences interacting with and caring for children so ingrained that they remain able to interact appropriately and positively with children until late in the progress of a dementing illness (Camp et al., 1997). The means of assessing IGP vary as much as the programs themselves. Researchers have utilized interviews (Jarrott Bruno, 2007), observational scales (Marx, Pannell, Papura-Gill, Cohen-Mansfield, 2004; Xaverius Matthews, 2003), attitudinal surveys (Jantz, Seefeldt, Galper, Serlock, 1977; Kocarnik Ponzetti, 1986), drawings (Lichtenstein, et al., 2001), and cognitive assessments (Newman, Karip, Faux, 1995) to evaluate the impact of IGP on one or more groups of participants. While the range of scales utilized is not inherently problematic, the current state of intergenerational research tools requires significant improvement for several reasons. First, scales are often created for a single study without any report of psychometric properties (Kuehne, 2004). Consequently, researchers reinvent the wheel rather than use valid, reliable scales. Second, most scales assess the experiences of a single generation (e.g., Camp et al., 1997; Underwood Dorfman, 2006) although IGP should, by de finition (Newman Smith, 1999), provide mutual benefit for young and old participants. Third, the developmental and disease characteristics of a large portion of IGP participants, pre-school age children and frail elders (e.g., Epstein Boisvert, 2006; Middlecamp Gross, 2002; Salari, 2002), limit the opportunity for valid self-report measures. Consequently, researchers often rely on proxy report and direct observation to tap participants experiences with IGP. A critical limitation of much IGP research lies in the black box that conceals the process of bringing young and old together. That is, assessments targeting the impact of IGP often neglect what actually transpired during the IGP. Useful process data will vary from project to project; it might detail the level of activity, the type of interpersonal interactions, the physical environment, facilitators behaviors, or the activitys age appropriateness. For example, Xaverius and Matthews (2003) assessed the impact of IGP involving fourth graders and senior center participants who met for six intergenerational activities. The authors described the theme and setting of activities where elderly participants engagement was coded. Data were not gathered regarding the nature of the activities or what happened when participants were engaged in the intergenerational activity (i.e., if they engaged with the activity materials, with an age peer, or with an intergenerational partner). In contrast, Taylor and colleagues (1999) reported on a senior mentoring program targeting attitudes towards aging, drug use, and civic engagement of participating at-risk youth. The treatment group as a whole demonstrated improved attitudes towards school, civic engagement, aging, and resisting drug use compared to a control group. The authors also tapped into important process data by rating seniors intensity of involvement as a mentor. The researchers found a greater degree of attitudinal improvement among children whose senior mentors were more intensely involved with their student partners. Such studies exemplify the importance of capturing process as well as outcome data. The variety of populations and settings that avail themselves of IGP supports the study of multiple paths leading to positive outcomes. Most would agree that a one-size-fits-all model of IGP is impossible and inappropriate; however, identification of practices and processes that optimize outcomes improves the overall quality of IGP and enhances understanding of how IGP uniquely meets individuals needs across the lifecourse. In turn, greater understanding of the processes by which positive IGP outcomes are achieved informs development of theory pertaining to intergenerational relationships. For example, while the contact theory (Allport, 1954) provides necessary conditions for achieving positive intergroup contact, Allport did not describe the processes by which these outcomes would be achieved (Pettigrew, 1998). The limitations of IGP and related research stem from the relative infancy of IGP research. Researchers have been studying IGP for only the last 30 years (e.g., Jantz, et al., 1977), yet they are trying to raise the field to match those of child and adult development. Practitioners are anxious to know how IGP affects the physical, cognitive, and mental health of participants, yet the more basic question about whether and how children and elders interact with each other during proscribed IGP remains largely unanswered. Before we can reliably draw conclusions about the effects of IGP on children and elderly participants, we must determine the nature of their time spent together. Kuehnes (2003) state of our art report on intergenerational research implored researchers to tap the experiences of young and old participants and to develop and disseminate standardized measures relevant to IGP. By addressing these points, researchers can better inform practitioners efforts and build a cohesiv e body of research. The scale described in the current paper addresses each of these recommendations. We sought to address the challenge of measuring the experiences of young and old IGP participants, focusing on frail elders and pre-school age children because they constitute a large portion of participants involved in IGP (Goyer Zuses, 1998). We conducted a three-phase study to develop an observational scale tapping the social behavior and affect of both young and old IGP participants. We turned to the child development literature, with its long history of observational research, for inspiration. Partens (1933) categories of childrens play behaviors appealed to us; they encompassed categories reflecting a continuum of social behaviors ranging from non-engagement to cooperative engagement. Rubin (2001) developed the Play Observation Scale, drawing on Partens work and childrens cognitive development research. The broad social behaviors of unoccupied, watching, solitary, parallel, and cooperative captured by the Play Observation Scale reflect behaviors of interest to practitioners working to support meaningful engagement among elders and children. For example, a code for unoccupied behavior is salient given the high rates of inactivity found at elder care programs (Ice, 2002) and the goal of utilizing intergenerational strategies to promote positive social engagement. Furthermore, our experiences with IGP (e.g., Gigliotti, Morris, Smock, Jarrott, Graham, 2005; Jarrott Bruno, 2003; Jarrott Bruno, 2007; Jarrott, Gigliotti, Smock, 2006; Jarrott, Gladwell, Gigliotti, Papero 200 4; Jarrott et al., 2004; Weintraub Killian, 2007) highlighted interaction as the central mechanism for achieving mutual benefit during IGP. Thus, a code for solitary behavior is relevant as it reflects engagement in a presented activity without social interaction. The first author used the original Play Observation Scale to observe elders during structured IGP (Gladwell Jarrott, 2003), determining that older adults engagement was greater during IGP than non-IGP. However, Gladwell and Jarrott found the scale cumbersome as they gathered salient data as well as information of little contemporary significance to IGP. Furthermore, they violated some of the scales specifications by utilizing the Play Observation Scale in a structured activity setting. We made several adaptations to Rubins Play Observation Scale for use with structured IGP (see Table 1 for descriptions of the scale categories).   First, Rubins social behavior categories included sub-categories indicative of cognitive development; however, given our emphasis on interactions irrespective of developmental abilities, we eliminated cognitive behaviors from our scale. Second, the Play Observation Scale was designed to be used during free play sessions where children self-initiate behaviors. However, intergenerational researchers have repeatedly emphasized the need for structure to optimize IGP (e.g., Camp et al., 1997; Jarrott, 2006; Xaverius Matthews, 2003), and so we developed the scale with planned IGP in mind. Finally, we expanded the IOS to distinguish between social behaviors with age peers and intergenerational partners (i.e., interactive peer versus interactive intergenerational). The first phase of the study involved qualitative observations of IGP conducted at a shared site intergenerational program serving frail elders and pre-school age children. The observations were then used to modify Rubins Play Observation Scale for use in a structured intergenerational setting. Phase two involved piloting the scale with two observers coding video of IGP and working with the second author to reach consensus and create a master coding scheme for the video sessions. In phase three, the scale was further modified and tested with a larger group of four observers coding video and live IGP. The current paper describes the three phases of the development and initial validation of the Intergenerational Observation Scale (IOS). While the IOS captures both behavior and affect of targeted child and elderly participants, the current paper focuses on social behaviors, which comprise the more complex sub-scale of the instrument. Method Participants Virginia Techs Neighbors Growing Together, is a shared site intergenerational program designed to improve the lives of people across the lifespan through intergenerational collaboration involving teaching, research, and outreach. Neighbors Growing Together includes two co-located programs: Adult Day Services and the Child Development Center for Learning and Research. Adult Day Services provides activities, care, and supervision daily to approximately 15 adults (50+ years old) with cognitive and/or physical impairments. The Child Development Center provides year-round, full-day care for 41 children ages 15 months to 5 years. Through daily programming designed to nurture development, enhance competencies, and facilitate positive social interactions between the generations, Neighbors Growing Together provides high quality services to children, older adults, and their families. Children from each of three classrooms have one to two weekly opportunities to join their elderly â€Å"neighb ors† for IGP, which typically involves three children and three older adults in a variety of activities, such as gardening, art, or sensory projects. Children and adults work together in a group facilitated by staff and students from the Child Development Center and Adult Day Services. Staff partners plan and implement activities that support an overarching goal of positive interactions. Activities further target developmental goals for both generations, such as fine motor skills or cooperation. Children and adults meet in a shared space adjoining the two programs. Child- and adult-sized chairs designed to put all participants at eye level and developmentally appropriate books and art materials are provided. Procedures Phase 1: Scale development In fall 2005, four research students gathered qualitative observations of IGP involving Adult Day Services participants and Child Development Center children. Observers attended different intergenerational sessions. Each week, observers had a distinct focus, starting with holistic observation to orient the observers to the setting and proceeding to target the environment, the participants, and the facilitators. Following their weekly observations, the observers and the first and second authors discussed the observational data, focusing on the interactions between participating children and elders and factors that influenced those interactions. After observing 3-5 intergenerational sessions apiece, observers read and reviewed the IOS scale and codebook developed by Gladwell and Jarrott (2003) and closely mirroring the Play Observation Scale developed by Rubin (2001). They discussed how well the categories applied to the intergenerational context they observed and how to modify the sca le to reflect the social behaviors critical to intergenerational interactions in planned activities. Through an iterative process, the first two authors used observers notes and conversations to modify the Play Observation Scale to capture data reflecting the interactive process of IGP. Based on the observations from Phase 1, we further developed and refined the IOS (see Table 1). The scale builds on earlier observational research (Rubin, 2001) by coding participants behavior and affect and the affect of intergenerational partners with whom a target participant interacts.   The IOS was developed for live coding. It captures observations for the duration of an intergenerational activity, which tends to last 15-30 minutes. Each observer identifies 4-5 participants for observation and watches them for 1-2 minutes to become familiar with the participants behaviors before beginning to record data. He or she codes a participant for one 15-second interval, then codes the next participant for 15 seconds, followed by the third participant, etc. After the last participant is coded, the observer cycles back to begin observing participant one again. All observers in a session start coding when the facilitators begin the activity and end when the activity completes. When coding, if a behavior occurs for the majority of the coding interval, it is coded as the predominant behavior. When multiple behaviors are observed for equal intervals during a 15-second coding episode, we use the following hierarchy to code the predominant behavior most indicative of intergenerational interactions: Interactive Intergenerational, Parallel Intergenerational, Interactive Peer, Parallel Peer, Staff, Watching, Solitary, and Unoccupied. Phase 2: Establishment of reliability Video coding of the observations was introduced during Phase 2 of scale development because learning the IOS through the use of video has several advantages. When first learning the scale, observers watched a 15-second interval repeatedly to better understand the IOS behavioral scoring. The video coding procedure allowed observers to review their coding with the second author, who is experienced in observational coding. Weekly meetings were held during which observers coding was reviewed and discussed until observers reached a consensus on what behaviors constituted the IOS categories. Weekly review helped observers achieve acceptable reliability in assigning predominant codes to participants social behaviors. The video procedure enabled us to refine the IOS manual. The video coding process began with two observers who both had experience with live coding during IGP. After studying the manual, observers filmed three weekly sessions of planned IGP between the elders and each of the three classrooms of children (one session per classroom per week). The procedure for using video to establish acceptable reliability was completed in three steps. First, observers independently coded sessions in 15-second intervals and re-watched these as many times as necessary to determine the predominant social behavior. In the second step, observers more closely approximated live coding by watching the 15-second intervals on video only once to code the predominant social behavior.   In the third step, observers coded live sessions (scoring participant behaviors individually but observing the same participants at the same intervals) and filmed the activities, which allowed observers to review their coding at the weekly meetings and resolve discrepancies. Based on the consensus between the two coders and the expert coder, master coding sheets were developed indicating agreement on the predominant behavior for each 15-second interval of the coded sessions. Before observers could proceed to the next step in the training process, they had to achieve acceptable inter-rater reliability measured by Cohens kappa. A kappa score of .60 or higher was considered acceptable (Cohen, 1960). The kappa scores for the two observers in Phase 2 were .67 for the first step, .85 for the second step, and .81 for the live coding in the third step. Replication of reliability In Phase 3, we used the IOS video coding procedure to train four new observers. In addition to establishing that the video coding procedure would work with observers new to the IOS, we wanted to determine the amount of training necessary to achieve acceptable reliability with our 3-step process. The observers started with an introductory period where they read the manual and watched live IGP to observe the range of behaviors common to IGP. Observers attended weekly meetings where they watched IGP videos and received instruction on using the IOS. The introductory period lasted approximately 3 weeks or until observers felt comfortable with the coding, which was an additional 2 weeks for one of the observers. After the introductory period, the observers started on step 1 in the video coding procedure. Each step lasted approximately 4 weeks. At the weekly coding meetings, observers reviewed any discrepancies between their coding and the master codes determined in Phase 2. Once the observers achieved acceptable reliability in step 1, they moved on to step 2. Coding pairs were formed, and they coded live IGP during step 3, achieving acceptable kappas of .92, .69, and .75. Discussion In the current paper, we discuss the development of the IOS, a scale designed to measure young and old participants social interaction and affect during IGP.   In developing the IOS, we began with qualitative observations of IGP to refine a well-established child development observational scale (Rubin, 2001). We modified the scale for observations of elder and child participants in a typical range of intergenerational programs.   Based on two groups of observers, we present a system for training individuals to use the scale and establish inter-rater reliability.   Currently, the use of standardized measure within the field of IGP research is extremely limited, and our goal is to develop a scale to address this need. The IOS addresses several of Kuehnes (2003) recommendations for advancing   intergenerational research and evaluation.   First, the IOS is grounded in theory that shaped our view of positive IGP outcomes. Personhood theory (Kitwood Bredin, 1992) leads us to intergenerational relationships as a once common source of positive social interaction for many elders that can continue to support their well-being in late life. Contact theory (Allport, 1954; Pettigrew Tropp, 2000) elucidates necessary conditions for positive intergroup exchange, such as that between youth and elders. The conditions of cooperation and shared goals inform our expectation that the central mechanism of effective IGP is positive intergenerational interactions. The IOS captures the level of interactive behaviors between generations, thus reflecting the presence or absence of cooperation and shared goals of participants. Second, we draw from standardized measures of social interaction, namely the work of Parten (1933) and Rubin (2001).   Working from their concepts, we qualitatively looked at the behaviors seen during IGP.   We then refined the social behaviors described within Rubins scale to fit an intergenerational population and to capture levels of social engagement or interaction during IGP.   Third, we steer away from the over-reliance on attitudinal measures, moving instead to behavioral and affective outcomes of IGP. Fourth, by taking steps to develop a standardized scale, we contribute to the research tools available to IGP researchers, which increases the capacity to compare outcomes across studies, thus advancing the collective understanding of IGP. Our results establish the IOS as a replicable measure of social interactions during IGP.   The three-step process we used to achieve acceptable inter-rater reliability proved effective with two groups of observers. The process allows observers to develop a thorough understanding of the social behaviors in the IOS. Observers coding is checked against the master coding scheme to insure observers accuracy coding observed behaviors.   The master coding scheme allows for faster, more accurate training on the use of the IOS. Now that we have developed a successful process for training observers to use the IOS and achieve acceptable inter-rater, observers could be trained relatively quickly, most likely within four to eight weeks. A reliable, quick training method will allow data collection to begin at an earlier date and will allow more researchers to use the scale with confidence. An important strength of the IOS is its utility with both generations of IGP participants. Most research on individual outcomes of IGP participation focuses on one generation or the other (e.g., Middlecamp Gross 2002), neglecting the experiences of the other generation. When researchers do evaluate both age groups, they typically use non-parallel measures because parallel scales for disparate age groups rarely exist.   Not only will the IOS allow for standardized data collection across sites; it enables standardized data collection across generations. We expect the IOS to yield valuable process and outcome data for practitioners and researchers. Considering first the IOS as a source of outcome data, a program introducing or modifying an IGP could, for example, use IOS data to determine the affect and social behavior of participants during IGP with a goal of achieving high levels of positive affect, increasing intergenerational interaction, and reducing inactivity. In regards to process data, the IOS can be used in conjunction with salient outcome measures (e.g., depression or attitudes towards aging) to help interpret the effects of IGP (another recommendation by Kuehne, 2003). In asserting that IGP positively affects (or does not affect) targeted outcomes, researchers analyses would be strengthened by including data on the level of intergenerational interaction and affect that transpired among participants. For example, Seefeldt (1987) reported that children who participated in regular intergenerational visits to a nursing home h ad worse attitudes about aging than children who did not.   These findings would have been more easily interpreted if they incorporated process data such as the affect and level of interaction between children and elders.   Because these data were not included in the analyses, readers are left to speculate whether all IGP involving nursing home residents would negatively affect childrens attitudes or if the nature of the IGP in that study contributed to the negative outcomes. Seefeldt described IGP that yielded little support for intergenerational interaction (i.e., children performing in the center of the room, surrounded by the elders). She also indicated that elders were largely non-responsive to the children, suggesting that the negative outcomes may have been due to the nature of the IGP. While IGP professionals advocate standards of IGP practice (Epstein Boisvert, 2006; Rosebrook Larkin, 2003), significant variability on dimensions of IGP likely affects targeted outcomes and should be assessed. By capturing data that reflect the process of connecting generations, the IOS promotes understanding of why IGP succeeds or fails. As outlined above, the IOS provides many benefits for IGP research and evaluation. Our next step in establishing the scales value and utility to the intergenerational field entails establishing the reliability for coding occurrence of behaviors and predominance and occurrence of affect. Second, we plan to use a variety of means to establish validity, including video training to address substantive validity, expert panels to assess content validity, and statistical modeling of IOS data and related measures to determine convergent or divergent validity. Third, the scale was developed within the Neighbors Growing Together shared site intergenerational program, which involves structured programming between preschoolers and frail older adults. Generalizability is a critical indicator of validity and depends on the scales utility across intergenerational sites, populations, and programmatic approaches. Fourth, the behavior category codes are developmentally salient for pre-school age child ren and frail elders; we need to determine if the categories will be equally informative when applied to older children and well elders. Finally, the scale should be tested across cultures to support Kuehnes (2003) recommendation to take a more global view of IGP innovation. Initial indicators reveal that the IOS could become a useful tool to researchers and practitioners alike. As they seek to develop, improve, and sustain IGP while linking programming data to instrumental outcomes of interest to practitioners and funders, the availability of a standardized scale appropriate for use with young and old will prove invaluable. At a time characterized by tremendous creative energy and innovation in the intergenerational field, the IOS can capture the essence of IGP as practitioners support meaningful outcomes through intergenerational relationships. References Allen-Burge, R., Burgio, L. D., Bourgeois, M. S., Sims, R., Nunnikhoven, J. (2001). Increasing communication among nursing home residents.   Journal of Clinical Geropsychology, 7, 213-230. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Camp, C. J., Judge, K. S., Bye, C. A., Fox, K. M., Bowden, J., Bell, M., et al.. (1997). An intergenerational program for persons with dementia using Montessori methods. The Gerontologist, 37, 688-692. Cohen, J. (1960). 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